5.2.1 Galaxy Zoo
I-Galaxy Zoo ihlangene nemizamo yabaningi abavolontiya abangewona ochwepheshe ukuhlukanisa izinkanyezi ezigidini.
I-Galaxy Zoo yaphuma enkingeni eyayibhekene noKevin Schawinski, umfundi ofunde iziqu e-Astronomy eYunivesithi yase-Oxford ngo-2007. Kulula kancane kancane, iSchawinski inesithakazelo emithala yezinkanyezi, futhi izinkanyezi zingahle zihlukaniswe yi-morphology yazo-elliptical noma i-spiral-futhi ngombala wabo-obomvu noma obomvu. Ngaleso sikhathi, ukuhlakanipha okuvamile phakathi kwazazi zezinkanyezi kwakuyizinkanyezi ezivuthayo, njengeMilky Way, ezazinombala ohlaza okwesibhakabhaka (okubonisa intsha) nezinkanyezi ze-elliptical zazibomvu (ezibonisa ubudala). I-Schawinski ingabaza lokhu kuhlakanipha okuvamile. Usola ukuthi nakuba leli phethini lingase liyiqiniso ngokujwayelekile, cishe kwakukhona inani elingenakubalwa, nokuthi ngokufunda eziningi zezinkanyezi ezingavamile-lezo ezingafanelanga iphethini elindelekile-angafunda okuthile ngenqubo lapho izighala zakhiwe.
Ngakho-ke, lokho uSchawinski adingekayo ukuze aguqulwe ukuhlakanipha okujwayelekile kwakuyisethi esikhulu sezinkanyezi ezihlukanisiwe; okungukuthi, izinkanyezi ezibekwe njengezingcingo noma i-elliptical. Kodwa-ke, inkinga yayiwukuthi izindlela ezikhona zokuhlelwa kwesigaba azikho okwanele ukusetshenziselwa ucwaningo lwesayensi; Ngamanye amazwi, ukuhlukanisa izinkanyezi kwakungaleso sikhathi, inkinga eyayinzima kuma-computer. Ngakho-ke, okwakudingeka kwakuyinani elikhulu lamacala amancane abantu . I-Schawinski yaqeda le nkinga yokuhlukanisa ngentshiseko yomfundi oqeqeshwe iziqu. Esikhathini somhlangano wamarathon wezinsuku eziyisikhombisa zamahora angu-12, wakwazi ukuhlukanisa ama-galaxies angu-50,000. Ngenkathi ama-galaxy angu-50,000 angazwakala njengenqwaba, empeleni yi-5% kuphela yama-galaxies wezigidi ezibekwe ezithombeni eSolan Digital Sky Survey. U-Schawinski waqaphela ukuthi udinga indlela eyengeziwe yokwehla.
Ngenhlanhla, kuvela ukuthi umsebenzi imithala ekulinganisweni akudingi ukuqeqeshwa kwezinga eliphakeme ekuqondeni yezinkanyezi; ungakwazi ukufundisa umuntu ukukwenza pretty ngokushesha. Ngamanye amazwi, nakuba ekulinganisweni imithala kuwumsebenzi ukuthi kwakunzima computer a, kwaba pretty lula ngabantu. Ngakho, njengoba yayihleli endaweni yokucima Oxford, Schawinski futhi sezinkanyezi esikanye Chris Lintott ngiphuphe up a website lapho izisebenzi zokuzithandela azibheka izithombe zemithala. Ngemva kwezinyanga ezimbalwa, Galaxy Zoo wazalwa.
Ewebhusayithi yeGalaxy Zoo, izisebenzi zokuzithandela zizohamba ngemizuzu embalwa yokuqeqeshwa; isibonelo, ukufunda umehluko emkhatsini we-galaxy evunguza ne-elliptical (isibalo 5.2). Emva kwalokhu kuqeqeshwa, isisebenzi ngasinye sokuzithandela kwakudingeka sidlule imibuzo elula-ehlukanisa kahle imilayezo eyi-11 yezigaba ezingu-15 ngezigaba ezaziwa-bese iqala ukuhlukaniswa kwangempela kwemithala engaziwa nge-interface elula ye-web (umfanekiso 5.3). Ukuguquka okuvela kwivolontiya kuya kwi-astronomer kuzokwenzeka emaminithini angaphansi kwengu-10 futhi kudingeke ukuthi kudlule izithiyo eziphansi kakhulu, imibuzo elula.
Umdwebo 5.2: Izibonelo zezinhlobo ezimbili eziyinhloko zezinkanyezi: ukuvunguza kanye ne-elliptical. Iphrojekthi ye-Galaxy Zoo isebenzisa amavolontiya angaphezu kuka-100,000 ukuze ahlukanise izithombe ezingaphezu kuka-900,000. Kuthiwe imvume evela ku- http: //www.GalaxyZoo.org kanye neSeran Sky Survey .
Umdwebo 5.3: Isikrini sokufaka lapho izisebenzi zokuzithandela zacelwa ukuba zihlukanise isithombe esisodwa. Kuthiwe imvume evela kuChris Lintott esekelwe isithombe esivela kuSeran Digital Sky Survey .
I-Galaxy Zoo yakhanga izisebenzi zokuvolontiya zayo ngemuva kokufaka iphrojekthi ku-athikili yezindaba, futhi ezinyangeni ezingaba yisithupha iphrojekthi yakhula yayibandakanya ososayensi abangaba ngu-100 000, abantu ababambe iqhaza ngoba bajabulela lo msebenzi futhi bafuna ukusiza ukuhamba kwesikhathi sezinkanyezi. Ngokubambisana, la mavolontiya angu-100,000 anikeze inani elingaphezu kwezigidi eziyizingu-40, kanti iningi lezinhlawulo zivela eqenjini elincane labahlanganyeli (Lintott et al. 2008) .
Abacwaningi abanolwazi lokuqasha abasizi bezocwaningo lwe-undergraduate bangase basheshe baqiniseke mayelana nekhwalithi yedatha. Nakuba lokhu kungabaza okucacile, i-Galaxy Zoo ibonisa ukuthi uma iminikelo yokuzithandela ihlanzwa ngendlela efanele, ingahle ihlasele futhi ihlangene, ingaveza imiphumela ephezulu (Lintott et al. 2008) . Iqhinga elibalulekile lokuthola isixuku ukwakha idatha yekhwalithi ye-professional is redundancy , okungukuthi, ukuba nomsebenzi ofanayo owenziwe abantu abaningi abahlukene. Ku-Galaxy Zoo, kwakukhona izigaba ezingaba ngu-40 nge-galaxy ngayinye; abacwaningi abasebenzisa abacwaningi be-undergraduate ucwaningo ngeke bakwazi ukuthola lelizinga lokuhlenga futhi ngakho-ke kuzodingeka ukuthi bakhathazeke kakhulu ngekhwalithi yesigaba ngasinye. Okushiwo yizivolontiya ezingekho ekuqeqeshweni, zenzelwe i-redundancy.
Ngisho ngezigaba eziningi ngezigaluli ngayinye, noma kunjalo, ukuhlanganisa isethi yamaphuzu okuvolontiya ukukhiqiza ukuhlukaniswa kwemibono kwakuyinkimbinkimbi. Ngoba izinselele ezifanayo ezivela emiphakathini eminingi yokubalwa komuntu, kuyasiza ukubuyekezwa kabili izinyathelo ezintathu abacwaningi be-Galaxy Zoo abasetshenziselwa ukuveza ukuvumelana kwabo kokuvumelana. Okokuqala, abacwaningi "bahlanza" idatha ngokususa izigaba ezimbi. Isibonelo, abantu abahlukanisa ngokuphindaphindiwe-galaxy efanayo-into eyokwenzeka uma bezama ukuphatha imiphumela-babekwahle konke ukuhlelwa kwabo. Lokhu nokunye ukuhlanzwa okufanayo kususiwe cishe ngo-4% kuzo zonke izigaba.
Okwesibili, ngemva kokuhlanza, abacwaningi kwakudingeka bakhiphe ukuchithwa okuhleliwe ekuhlelweni. Ngomunye uchungechunge lwezifundo zokutholwa kokungena ezihlanganisiwe ngaphakathi kweprojekthi yokuqala-ngokwesibonelo, kubonisa ezinye izisebenzi zokuzithandela umthala ku-monochrome esikhundleni sombala-abacwaningi bathola izinkathazo eziningana ezihleliwe, njenge-bias ehlelekile ukuhlukanisa imilayezo yezintaba ezikude njengama-elliptical galaxies (Bamford et al. 2009) . Ukulungiswa kwalezi zinselele ezihleliwe kubaluleke kakhulu ngoba ukuvuselelwa akukhiphi ngokuzenzakalelayo ukususa okuhlelekile; kusiza kuphela ukususa iphutha okungahleliwe.
Ekugcineni, emva kokungahlehlisi kahle, abacwaningi badinga indlela yokuhlanganisa izigaba ezahlukahlukene zokukhiqiza ukulinganisa. Indlela elula yokuhlanganisa izigaba ze-galaxy ngayinye ngabe ngabe ukukhetha ukuhlukaniswa okujwayelekile. Kodwa-ke, le ndlela yayiyokwenza isisebenzi ngasinye sokuzithandela sibe nesisindo esifanayo, futhi abacwaningi babecabanga ukuthi amanye amavolontiya ayengcono ekuhlukaniseni abanye. Ngakho-ke, abacwaningi basungula inqubo eyinkimbinkimbi yokulinganisa i-iterative eyazama ukuthola izigaba ezinhle kakhulu futhi ibanike isisindo esiningi.
Ngakho-ke, emva kwenqubo yesinyathelo esithathu-ukuhlanza, ukuhlehlisa, nokulinganisa-ithimba lokucwaninga le-Galaxy Zoo liguqule izigaba zokuzivocavoca eziyizigidi ezingu-40 zibe yisethi yokuvumelana ngokuhlukaniswa kwemvelo. Lapho lezi zigaba ze-Galaxy Zoo ziqhathaniswa nemizamo emithathu eyedlule yezinkanyezi zezobuchwepheshe, okubandakanya ukuhlukaniswa ngu-Schawinski okusize ukukhuthaza i-Galaxy Zoo, kwakukhona isivumelwano esinamandla. Ngakho-ke, amavolontiya, ngokubambisana, akwazi ukuhlinzeka ngezigaba eziphezulu kanye nesilinganiso abacwaningi abakwazi ukufanisa (Lintott et al. 2008) . Eqinisweni, ngokuhlukaniswa komuntu ngezinkanyezi eziningi, iSchawinski, Lintott, nabanye babonisa ukuthi imilayezo engamaphesenti angu-80 kuphela elandelana nemiklamo elandelwayo yephethini-eluhlaza okwesibhakabhaka kanye ne-ellipticals ebomvu-futhi amaphepha amaningi abhaliwe mayelana lokhu kutholakala (Fortson et al. 2011) .
Njengoba unikezwe ngalesi sizinda, manje usubona ukuthi i-Galaxy Zoo ilandela kanjani iresiphi yokuhlukanisa-esebenzayo-yokuhlanganisa, iresiphi efanayo esetshenziselwa amaphrojekthi amaningi wokubala abantu. Okokuqala, inkinga enkulu ihlukaniswe zibe izingxenye. Kulesi simo, inkinga yokwehlukanisa izigungu ezigidini ihlukaniswe zibe yizinkinga eziyinkulungwane zokuhlukanisa enye imilayezo. Okulandelayo, ukuhlinzwa kusetshenziswe ku-chunk ngayinye ngokuzimela. Kulokhu, amavolontiya ahlukanisa umthala ngamunye njenge-spiral noma i-elliptical. Okokugcina, imiphumela ihlangene ukuveza umphumela wokuvumelana. Kule nkinga, isinyathelo sokuhlanganisa sihlanganisa ukuhlanza, ukuhlehlisa, nokulinganisa ukukhiqiza ukuhlukaniswa kwemigqa ngayinye. Ngisho noma amaphrojekthi amaningi asebenzisa le recipe jikelele, isinyathelo ngasinye sidinga ukulungiswa kwenkinga ethile ebhekiswe kuyo. Isibonelo, kumsebenzi wokuqamba komuntu ochazwe ngezansi, iresiphi efanayo izolandelwa, kepha ukusetshenziswa nokuhlanganisa izinyathelo kuzohluka kakhulu.
Ithimba le-Galaxy Zoo, le phrojekthi yokuqala yayiyisiqalo nje. Ngokushesha baqaphela ukuthi nakuba babekwazi ukuhlukanisa izinkanyezi eziyizigidi, lesi sikali asanele ukusebenza ngezinhlolovo zamuva zedijithali ezintsha, ezingabangela izithombe zezinkanyezi eziyizigidi ezingu-10 (Kuminski et al. 2014) . Ukubhekana nokwanda kusuka ku-1 million kuya kwezigidi eziyi-10-isici se-10,000-Galaxy Zoo sidinga ukuqoqa izikhathi ezingaba ngu-10 000 abahlanganyeli abaningi. Ngisho noma inani lamavolontiya e-Inthanethi likhulu, alinakuphela. Ngakho-ke, abacwaningi baqaphela ukuthi uma bezobhekana nemininingwane ekhula njalo, kuyadingeka indlela entsha, ngisho nangokwengeziwe.
Ngakho-ke, uManda Banerji-esebenzisana noSchawinski, i-Lintott, namanye amalungu eqembu le-Galaxy Zoo (2010) elaqala ukufundisa amakhompyutha ukuhlukanisa izigaba. Ngokuqondile, usebenzisa ukuhlukaniswa kwabantu okudalwe i-Galaxy Zoo, i-Banerji yakha imodeli yokufunda yomshini engakwazi ukubikezela isigaba somuntu se-galaxy esekelwe izici zesithombe. Uma lesi simodeli singakwazi ukukhiqiza izigaba zabantu ngokuchaneka okukhulu, khona-ke ingasetshenziswa ngabacwaningi be-Galaxy Zoo ukuhlukanisa inani elingenamkhawulo lezinkanyezi.
Umgomo we-Banerji kanye nendlela osebenza nabo empeleni kufana kakhulu namasu ajwayelekile asetshenziselwa ucwaningo lwezenhlalakahle, nakuba lokho kufana kungase kungabonakali ekuqaleni. Okokuqala, Banerji kanye nozakwabo iguqulwe isithombe ngasinye ku iqoqo izici zezinombolo esifingqa impahla yayo. Isibonelo, ukuthola izithombe zezinkanyezi, kube khona izici ezintathu: inani lobuhlaza okwesibhakabhaka kusithombe, ukungafani ekukhanyeni kwamaphikseli, kanye nenani lamaphikseli angewona amhlophe. Ukukhethwa kwezici ezifanele yingxenye ebalulekile yenkinga, futhi ngokuvamile idinga ubuchwepheshe bendawo. Lesi sinyathelo sokuqala, esivame ukubizwa ngokuthi ubuchwepheshe bokusebenza , sibangela matrix yedatha nomunye umugqa ngomfanekiso ngamunye bese izinsika ezintathu zichaza leso sithombe. Njengoba kunikezwe i-matrix yedatha kanye nomkhiqizo oyifunayo (isb., Noma ngabe isithombe sihlukaniswa ngumuntu njenge-galaxy elliptical), umcwaningi udala imodeli yokufunda noma imishini-isibonelo, ukuguqulwa kwemigomo-okubikezela isigaba somuntu esekelwe ezicikisweni wesithombe. Okokugcina, umcwaningi usebenzisa izilinganiso kule model yokubala ukuze akhiqize izigaba ezilinganisiwe zezinkanyezi ezintsha (umfanekiso 5.4). Ekufundeni komshini, le ndlela-isebenzisa izibonelo ezibhalwe phansi ukudala imodeli engabeka ilebula idatha entsha-ibizwa ngokuthi i- supervised learning .
Umdwebo 5.4: Incazelo elula yokuthi i- Banerji et al. (2010) isetshenziswe ngezigaba ze-Galaxy Zoo ukuqeqesha imodeli yokufunda yomshini ukwenza ukuhlukaniswa kwemigqa. Izithombe zezinkanyezi zaguqulwa ku-matrix yezici. Kulesi sibonelo esilula, kunezici ezintathu (inani lembala eluhlaza okwesibhakabhaka emfanekisweni, ukungafani kokukhanya kwamaphikseli, kanye nenani lamaphikseli angewona amawundu). Khona-ke, ukuze uthole i-subset yezithombe, amalebula we-Galaxy Zoo asetshenziselwa ukuqeqesha imodeli yokufunda yomshini. Okokugcina, ukufundwa komshini kusetshenziselwa ukulinganisa izigaba zezinkanyezi ezisele. Ngikubiza ngokuthi iphrojekthi yokuqhathaniswa komuntu eyenziwe ngekhompuyutha ngoba, kunokuthi abantu babe nokuxazulula inkinga, kubangele abantu bakhe isethi yedatha engasetshenziselwa ukuqeqesha ikhompyutha ukuxazulula inkinga. Inzuzo yalesi sistimu yokuqhathaniswa komuntu yikhompuyutha ukuthi ikusiza ukuba ubhekane nokulingana kwemininingwane engapheliyo usebenzisa kuphela inani eliphelele lomzamo womuntu. Izithombe zezinkanyezi ezenziwe ngemvume evela kuSloan Digital Sky Survey .
Izici ze-Banerji nemodeli yokufunda yomshini osebenza nabo zaziyinkimbinkimbi kunalezo ezisesibonelo sami sokudlala-ngokwesibonelo, wasebenzisa izici ezinjenge- "de Vaucouleurs ezihambisana ne-axial ratio" - futhi isibonelo sakhe sasingekho ukuguqulwa kwemithi, kwakuyi-network ye-neural network. Ukusebenzisa izici zakhe, imodeli yakhe, nokuhlukaniswa kwe-Galaxy Zoo ngokuvumelana, wakwazi ukudala izisindo kwisici ngasinye, bese usebenzisa lezi zindwangu ukwenza izibikezelo mayelana nokuhlukaniswa kwemighala. Isibonelo, ukuhlaziywa kwakhe kutholakale ukuthi izithombe eziphansi "zeVaucouleurs zihambisana ne-axial ratio" cishe zingaba yizinkanyezi ezivunguza. Njengoba enikezwe lezi zindwangu, wakwazi ukubikezela isigaba somuntu se-galaxy ngokunembile.
Umsebenzi we-Banerji nosebenza nabo waphenduka i-Galaxy Zoo kulokho engangikubiza ngokuthi isistimu yokuqhathaniswa komuntu . Indlela engcono kakhulu yokucabanga ngalezi zinhlelo ze-hybride ukuthi kunokuthi abantu babe nokuxazulula inkinga, banabantu abakha idathasethi engasetshenziswa ukuqeqesha ikhompyutha ukuxazulula inkinga. Ngezinye izikhathi, ukuqeqesha ikhompyutha ukuxazulula le nkinga kungadinga izibonelo eziningi, futhi indlela kuphela yokukhiqiza isibalo esanele sezibonelo ukusebenzisana okukhulu. Inzuzo yalesi sindlela esisizwa ngekhompyutheni yukuthi ikunika amandla ekusingatha inani elingapheli lwedatha usebenzisa kuphela inani eliphelele lomzamo womuntu. Isibonelo, umcwaningi onama-galaxies wezigidi ezihlukaniswa abantu angakha imodeli yokubikezela engasetshenziswa ukuhlukanisa izigidigidi eziyizinkulungwane zezigidi noma izinkulungwane ezintathu. Uma kunezinamba eziningi zezinkanyezi, ke lolu hlobo lwama-hybrid womuntu luyisisombululo kuphela. Lokhu okungahleliwe okungapheli akuyona mahhala, noma kunjalo. Ukwakha imodeli yokufunda imishini engakwazi ukukhiqiza ngokuhlelekile ukuhlukaniswa komuntu kuyinkinga enzima, kodwa ngenhlanhla kunezincwadi ezivelele kakhulu ezizinikezelwe kule ndaba (Hastie, Tibshirani, and Friedman 2009; Murphy 2012; James et al. 2013) .
I-Galaxy Zoo ngumfanekiso omuhle wokuthi zingaki amaphrojekthi wokubala abantu abaguqukayo. Okokuqala, umcwaningi uzama iphrojekthi ngokwayo noma ngeqembu elincane labasizi bezokucwaninga (isb., Umzamo wokuqala weSchawinski). Uma le ndlela ingaqhubeki kahle, umcwaningi angadlulela kumsebenzi wokuqamba komuntu nabathintekayo abaningi. Kodwa, ngokomthamo othile wedatha, umzamo womuntu ohlanzekile ngeke ube ngokwanele. Ngaleso sikhathi, abacwaningi badinga ukwakha isistimu yokuqhathanisa abantu abasebenzisa ikhompiyutha lapho izigaba zabantu zisetshenziselwa ukuqeqesha imodeli yokufunda yomshini engasetshenziselwa inani elingenamkhawulo lwedatha.
