Yini okufanele ufunde ngokulandelayo
- Isingeniso (isigaba 5.1)
Ukubambisana kweMisa kuhlanganisa imibono evela kwesayensi isakhamuzi , ukuphakanyiswa kwabantu , kanye nokuhlakanipha okuhlangene . Isayensi yabezizwe ngokuvamile kusho ukubandakanya "izakhamizi" (okungukuthi, izintatheli) ngenqubo yesayensi; ukuze uthole okwengeziwe, bheka Crain, Cooper, and Dickinson (2014) Bonney et al. (2014) . Ukusebenzisa imali ngokujwayelekile kusho ukuthatha inkinga ngokujwayelekile exazululwe ngaphakathi kwenhlangano futhi esikhundleni sokuyixosha esixukwini; ukuze uthole okwengeziwe, bheka Howe (2009) . Ukuhlakanipha okuhlangene kuvame ukuchaza amaqembu abantu abenza ngokubambisana ngezindlela ezibonakala zihlakaniphile; ukuze uthole okwengeziwe, bheka Malone and Bernstein (2015) . Nielsen (2012) isingeniso se-length-book emandleni okubambisana okukhulu ngokwesayensi yocwaningo.
Kunezinhlobo eziningi zokubambisana okukhulu okungahambisani kahle nezigaba ezintathu engiziphakamisile, futhi ngicabanga ukuthi ezintathu zazo zifanelwe ukunakwa okukhethekile ngoba zingasiza ekucwaningweni kwezenhlalakahle. Esinye isibonelo yizimakethe zokubikezela, lapho abahlanganyeli bethenga khona futhi bahweba izinkontileka ezithengekayo ngokusekelwe emiphumeleni eyenzeka emhlabeni. Amakethe okubikezelayo avame ukusetshenziswa amafemu kanye nohulumeni ngokubikezela, futhi asetshenziswe ngabacwaningi bezenhlalo ukubikezela ukuphindaphinda kwezifundo ezishicilelwe zengqondo (Dreber et al. 2015) . Ukuze uthole ukubuka kabanzi izimakethe zokubikezela, bheka Wolfers and Zitzewitz (2004) no- Arrow et al. (2008) .
Isibonelo sesibili esingahambelani kahle ohlelweni lwami lwezigaba yilona iphrojekthi yePolymMath, lapho abacwaningi babambisana khona besebenzisa ama-blogs kanye ne-wikis ukufakazela ukuthi izibalo ezintsha zezibalo. Iphrojekthi yePolMMath ngezindlela ezithile ezifana neNetflix Prize, kodwa kule phrojekthi abahlanganyeli bakhiwe ngokuzikhandla ngezixazululo ezingxenye zabanye. Ukuze uthole okwengeziwe ngephrojekthi yePolyMath, bheka Gowers and Nielsen (2009) , Cranshaw and Kittur (2011) , Nielsen (2012) , Kloumann et al. (2016) .
Isibonelo sesithathu esingasifanele kahle ohlelweni lwami lokuhlukanisa ngezigaba yilabo abaxhomeke esikhathini esinjenge-Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) Network Challenge (okungukuthi, i-Red Balloon Challenge). Ukuze uthole okwengeziwe ngalezi zindlela zokubambisana okwenzeka ngesikhathi sibona Pickard et al. (2011) , Tang et al. (2011) , Rutherford et al. (2013) .
- Ukubalwa kwabantu (isigaba 5.2)
Igama elithi "ukuqhathaniswa kwabantu" liphuma emsebenzini owenziwa ososayensi bekhompyutha, futhi ukuqonda umongo walolu cwaningo kuzokwenza ngcono ikhono lakho lokukhetha izinkinga ezingase zifaneleke. Kweminye imisebenzi, amakhompiyutha anamandla kakhulu, anekhono elidlulele kakhulu kulabo ngisho nabantu abachwepheshe. Isibonelo, ku-chess, amakhompyutha angashaya ngisho nabazukulu abahle kakhulu. Kodwa-futhi lokhu kungathandwa kakhulu ososayensi bezenhlalakahle-ngeminye imisebenzi, amakhompiyutha empeleni ayimbi kakhulu kunabantu. Ngamanye amazwi, okwamanje ungcono kunekhompyutha eyinkimbinkimbi kakhulu emisebenzini ethile ehlanganisa ukucubungula izithombe, ividiyo, umsindo, kanye nombhalo. Ososayensi bekhompyutha basebenza kulezi zinkimbinkimbi-ze-computer-imisebenzi elula-yabantu-ke baqaphela ukuthi bangabandakanya abantu ohlelweni lwabo lokubhala. Nakhu ukuthi uLuis von Ahn (2005) wachaza kanjani ukuqhathaniswa komuntu lapho eqala ukufaka igama lakhe ekukhulumeni kwakhe: "iparadi yokusebenzisa amandla okucubungula abantu ukuxazulula izinkinga amakhomikhali akakwazi ukuxazulula." Ukuze uthole ukwelashwa ubude bokubala komuntu, umqondo ophelele kakhulu wale nkulumo, bheka Law and Ahn (2011) .
Ngokwezincazelo ezihlongozwayo ku- Ahn (2005) Foldit-engikuchazile esigabeni ngamakholi avuliwe-kungabhekwa njengeprojekthi yokubala yomuntu. Kodwa-ke, ngikhetha ukuhlukanisa uFoldit njengocingo oluvulekile ngoba kudinga amakhono akhethekile (nakuba kungenjalo ngempela ukuqeqeshwa okusemthethweni) futhi kuthatha isisombululo esihle kakhulu, kunokuba isebenzise uhlelo lokuhlukanisa-ukufaka isicelo.
Igama elithi "ukwehlukana-isicelo-ukuhlanganiswa" lisetshenziswe Wickham (2011) ukuchaza isu lamakhompiyutha, kodwa lithatha ngokuphelele inqubo yamaphrojekthi amaningi wokubala. Isu lokuhlukanisa-sisebenzisana-sihlangene silingana ne-MapReduce framework elakhiwe ku-Google; ukuze uthole okuningi ku-MapReduce, bheka Dean and Ghemawat (2004) Dean and Ghemawat (2008) . Ukuze uthole okwengeziwe kwamanye ama-architectural ahlukanisiwe, bona u- Vo and Silvia (2016) . Isahluko sesi-3 Law and Ahn (2011) sinengxoxo yamaphrojekthi anezinyathelo eziyinkimbinkimbi ezihlanganisiwe kunezo zalesahluko.
Emiphakathini yokubalwa komuntu engikhulume ngakho esahlukweni, abahlanganyeli babengazi ukuthi kwenzekani. Amanye amaphrojekthi, noma kunjalo, afuna ukuthatha "umsebenzi" osevele usuyenzayo (ofanayo no-eBird) futhi ngaphandle kokuqwashisa komhlanganyeli. Bheka, isibonelo, i-ESP Game (Ahn and Dabbish 2004) kanye ne-reCAPTCHA (Ahn et al. 2008) . Noma kunjalo, zombili lezi ziprojekthi ziphakamisa imibuzo yokuziphatha ngoba abahlanganyeli babengazi ukuthi idatha yabo isetshenziswa kanjani (Zittrain 2008; Lung 2012) .
Ephefumulelwe yi-ESP Game, abacwaningi abaningi baye bazama ukuthuthukisa ezinye "imidlalo ngezinhloso" (Ahn and Dabbish 2008) (okungukuthi, "imidlalo (Ahn and Dabbish 2008) okusekela abantu" (Pe-Than, Goh, and Lee 2015) okungaba esetshenziselwa ukuxazulula izinkinga ezihlukahlukene. Yiziphi lezi "midlalo enenjongo" efana ngazo ukuthi bazama ukwenza imisebenzi ehilelekile ekubaleni komuntu kujabulise. Ngakho-ke, ngenkathi i-ESP Game ikwabelana ngesakhiwo esifanayo-sokuhlanganisa-ne-Galaxy Zoo, ihluke endleleni abahlanganyeli abashukunyiswa ngayo-ukuzijabulisa nokuthanda ukusiza isayensi. Ukuze uthole okwengeziwe ngemidlalo ngenhloso, bheka i- Ahn and Dabbish (2008) .
Incazelo yami ye-Galaxy Zoo idonsela ku- Nielsen (2012) , i- Adams (2012) , i- Clery (2011) , kanye Hand (2010) , futhi ukunikezwa kwami kwemigomo yokucwaninga ye-Galaxy Zoo kwenziwe lula. Ukuze uthole okwengeziwe emlandweni wezinhlobonhlobo zezinkanyezi ku-astronomy nokuthi i-Galaxy Zoo iqhubeka kanjani le masiko, bheka Masters (2012) no- Marshall, Lintott, and Fletcher (2015) . Ukwakhiwa kwe-Galaxy Zoo, abacwaningi baphetha i-Galaxy Zoo 2 eqoqa izigidi ezingaphezu kwezigidi ezingu-60 zokuhlukanisa izimo zokuziphatha ezivela ezivolontiya (Masters et al. 2011) . Ngaphezu kwalokho, baxhuma ezinkingeni ngaphandle kwe-galaxy morphology, kuhlanganise nokuhlola ubuso beNyanga, ukucinga amaplanethi, nokurekhoda amadokhumenti amadala. Njengamanje, wonke amaphrojekthi abo aqoqwa kuwebhusayithi ye-Zooniverse (Cox et al. 2015) . Enye yezinhlelo-Isitatimende se-Serengeti-inikeza ubufakazi bokuthi amaphrojekthi wokuhlukanisa isithombe se-Galaxy Zoo nawo angenziwa ngokucwaninga kwemvelo (Swanson et al. 2016) .
Abacwaningi abahlela ukusebenzisa imakethe yomsebenzi we-microtask (isib. I-Amazon Mechanical Turk) yephrojekthi yokubalwa komuntu, Chandler, Paolacci, and Mueller (2013) J. Wang, Ipeirotis, and Provost (2015) banikeza iseluleko esihle ngokuklama imisebenzi nezinye izinkinga ezihlobene. Porter, Verdery, and Gaddis (2016) banikeza izibonelo nezeluleko ezigxile kakhulu ekusetshenzisweni kwemakethe yezemisebenzi ye-microtask ngalokho ababiza ngokuthi "ukukhushulwa kwedatha." Umkhawulo phakathi kokunwetshwa kwedatha nokuqoqwa kwedatha kufana ncamashi. Ukuze uthole okwengeziwe ngokuqoqa nokusebenzisa amalebula ekufundeni okulawulwayo, bheka i- Grimmer and Stewart (2013) .
Abacwaningi abanentshisekelo ekudaleni lokho engikubiza ngokuthi izinhlelo zokuqhathanisa abantu (ikhompuyutha, amasistimu asebenzisa amalebula womuntu ukuqeqesha umshini wokufunda umshini) angase abe nesithakazelo ku- Shamir et al. (2014) (isibonelo sokusebenzisa umsindo) Cheng and Bernstein (2015) . Futhi, amamodeli wokufunda omshini kulezi ziprojekthi angacelwa ngamakholi avulekile, lapho abacwaningi bancintisana khona ukudala amamodeli wokufunda umshini ngokusebenza okukhulu kakhulu kokubikezela. Isibonelo, ithimba le-Galaxy Zoo livule ucingo oluvulekile futhi lithola indlela entsha evelele okuthuthukisiwe ku- Banerji et al. (2010) ; bheka Dieleman, Willett, and Dambre (2015) ukuthola imininingwane.
- Vula izingcingo (isigaba 5.3)
Vula izingcingo akuzona ezintsha. Eqinisweni, enye yezingcingo ezivuleka kakhulu zibuyele emuva ngo-1714 lapho iPhalamende laseBrithani lidala i-Longitude Prize kunoma ubani ongakha indlela yokuthola ubude bomkhumbi olwandle. Le nkinga yahlushwa abaningi ososayensi abakhulu kunazo zonke ezinsukwini, kuhlanganise no-Isaac Newton, kanye nesisombululo esiphumelelayo ekugcineni sathunyelwa nguJohn Harrison, umshicileli ovela emaphandleni owafinyelela inkinga ngokuhlukile kubososayensi ababegxile kwisisombululo esingaba nesibindi sezinkanyezi ; ukuze uthole olunye ulwazi, bheka Sobel (1996) . Njengoba lesi sibonelo sibonisa, isizathu esisodwa sokuthi izingcingo ezivuliwe ukuthi zisebenza kahle ukuthi zinikeza ukufinyelela kubantu abanezimvo namakhono ahlukene (Boudreau and Lakhani 2013) . Bheka i- Hong and Page (2004) kanye ne- Page (2008) ukuze uthole okuningi ngokubaluleka kokuhlukahluka ekuxazululeni izinkinga.
Amacala wekholi evulekile ngalinye esahlukweni adinga incazelo encane yokuthi kungani kungokwalesi sigaba. Okokuqala, enye indlela engihlukanisa ngayo phakathi kokuqalwa komuntu nokuvula amaphrojekthi okuvula ucingo kungakhathaliseki ukuthi okukhiphayo isilinganiso sesisombululo (ukubalwa komuntu) noma isisombululo esihle (ucingo oluvulekile). Umklomelo we-Netflix uyinkimbinkimbi ngalokhu ngoba isisombululo esihle kakhulu saba yisisombululo esiyinkimbinkimbi sezixazululo ngabanye, indlela ebizwa ngokuthi isisombululo senkampani (Bell, Koren, and Volinsky 2010; Feuerverger, He, and Khatri 2012) . Ngokombono we-Netflix, noma kunjalo, konke okwakudingeka bakwenze kwakuwukukhetha ikhambi elihle kakhulu. Ukuthola okuningi kumklomelo we-Netflix, bheka Bennett and Lanning (2007) , Thompson (2008) , Bell, Koren, and Volinsky (2010) , Feuerverger, He, and Khatri (2012) .
Okwesibili, ngezinye izincazelo zokuqhathaniswa kwabantu (isib. Ahn (2005) ), i-Foldit kufanele ibhekwe njengephrojekthi yokubalwa komuntu. Kodwa-ke, ngikhetha ukuhlukanisa njengamafomu avulekile ngoba idinga amakhono akhethekile (nakuba kungenjalo ukuqeqeshwa okukhethekile) futhi kuthatha isisombululo esihle kunazo zonke, kunokuba isebenzise uhlelo lokuhlukanisa uhlelo lokusebenza. Ukuze uthole okwengeziwe ku-Foldit ubone, Cooper et al. (2010) , Khatib et al. (2011) , no- Andersen et al. (2012) ; Incazelo yami yeFoldit idonsela izincazelo Bohannon (2009) , Hand (2010) , no- Nielsen (2012) .
Okokugcina, umuntu angaphikisana ngokuthi i-Peer-to-Patent isibonelo sokuqoqwa kwedatha esatshalaliswe. Ngikhetha ukuyifaka njengocingo oluvulekile ngoba linesakhiwo esinjengesomncintiswano futhi kuphela iminikelo enhle kakhulu esetshenzisiwe, kanti ngokuqoqwa kwedatha esatshalaliswe, umnikelo weminikelo emihle nokubi ayicacisi kangako. Ukuze uthole okwengeziwe kwi-Peer to Patent, bheka i- Noveck (2006) , i- Ledford (2007) , i- Noveck (2009) , no- Bestor and Hamp (2010) .
Ngokusebenzisa izingcingo ezivulekile kocwaningi lomphakathi, imiphumela ifana Glaeser et al. (2016) , kubikwa esahlukweni 10 Mayer-Schönberger and Cukier (2013) lapho iNew York City yakwazi ukusebenzisa imodeli yokubikezela ukukhiqiza inzuzo enkulu ekukhiqizeni kwabahloli bezindlu. E-New York City, lezi zindlela zokubikezela zakhiwa ngabasebenzi bomuzi, kodwa kwezinye izimo, omunye angacabanga ukuthi angadalwa noma athuthukiswe ngamakholi avulekile (isib. Glaeser et al. (2016) ). Kodwa-ke, ukukhathazeka okuyinhloko ngamanothi okubikezela asetshenziselwa ukwabela izinsiza ukuthi lezi zithombe zinekhono lokuqinisa ukukhishwa okukhona. Abacwaningi abaningi sebeyazi kakade "udoti, udoti ngaphandle," futhi ngamamodeli okubikezela angase abe "ukugxila, ukuhlekisa ngaphandle." Bheka i- Barocas and Selbst (2016) no- O'Neil (2016) ukuze uthole okuningi ngezingozi zezinhlobo zokubikezela ezakhelwe ngedatha yokuqeqesha ehlelekile.
Inkinga eyodwa engavimbela ohulumeni ukuthi basebenzise imincintiswano evulekile ukuthi lokhu kudinga ukukhululwa kwedatha, okungaholela ekuphuleni kwangasese. Ukuze uthole okwengeziwe mayelana nokukhululwa kwangasese kanye nedatha emafonini avulekile, bheka Narayanan, Huey, and Felten (2016) kanye nengxoxo esahlukweni 6.
Ukuze uthole ukwaziswa okwengeziwe ngokungafani nokufana phakathi kokubikezela nokuchazwa, bheka Breiman (2001) , Shmueli (2010) , Watts (2014) , Kleinberg et al. (2015) . Ukuze uthole okwengeziwe ngendima yokubikezela ekucwaningweni kwezenhlalo, bheka u- Athey (2017) , Cederman and Weidmann (2017) , i- Hofman, Sharma, and Watts (2017) , ( ??? ) , ne- Yarkoni and Westfall (2017) .
Ukuze ubuyekeze amaphrojekthi okuvula obala ku-biology, kufaka phakathi iseluleko sokwakha, bheka Saez-Rodriguez et al. (2016) .
- Iqoqo leqoqo lemininingwane (isigaba 5.4)
Incazelo yami ye-eBird idonsela izincazelo Bhattacharjee (2005) , Robbins (2013) , no- Sullivan et al. (2014) . Ukuze uthole kabanzi ukuthi abacwaningi basebenzisa kanjani amamodeli wokubala ukuze bahlaziye idatha ye-eBir bona Fink et al. (2010) Hurlbert and Liang (2012) . Ukuze uthole okuningi ngokulinganisela ikhono labahlanganyeli be-eBird, bona Kelling, Johnston, et al. (2015) . Ukuze uthole okwengeziwe emlandweni wezesayensi zesakhamuzi e-ornithology, bheka Greenwood (2007) .
Ukuze uthole okwengeziwe kuMkhiqizo Wezincwadi ZamaMalawi, bheka Watkins and Swidler (2009) Kaler, Watkins, and Angotti (2015) . Ukuze uthole okwengeziwe kumsebenzi ohlobene eNingizimu Afrika, bheka i- Angotti and Sennott (2015) . Ukuze uthole izibonelo eziningi zocwaningo usebenzisa idatha evela kuMalawi Kaler (2004) ubone Kaler (2004) no- Angotti et al. (2014) .
- Ukuzakhela ngokwakho (isigaba 5.5)
Indlela yami yokunikeza izeluleko zokuklama isingeniso, ngokusekelwe kwizibonelo zemiklamo ephumelelayo yokusebenzisana engiyizwile ngayo. Kubuye kube nomsakazo wocwaningo lokuzama ukusebenzisa izinkombandlela ezijwayelekile zomphakathi ezingokwengqondo ekudaleni imiphakathi e-intanethi ehambisana nokuklama kwamaphrojekthi wokubambisana okukhulu, bheka, isibonelo, Kraut et al. (2012) .
Ngokuphathelene nabathintekayo abathintekayo, empeleni kunzima ukuthola ukuthi kungani abantu behlanganyela emisebenzini emikhulu yokubambisana (Cooper et al. 2010; Nov, Arazy, and Anderson 2011; Tuite et al. 2011; Raddick et al. 2013; Preist, Massung, and Coyle 2014) . Uma uhlela ukugqugquzela abahlanganyeli ngokukhokha emakethe yemisebenzi ye-microtask (isib. I-Amazon Mechanical Turk), Kittur et al. (2013) inikeza iseluleko.
Mayelana nokunika amandla okumangazayo, ukuthola izibonelo ezingaphezulu kokuthola okungalindelekile okuvela kumaphrojekthi we-Zooiverse, bheka Marshall, Lintott, and Fletcher (2015) .
Ngokuphathelene nokuziphatha okuhle, ezinye izethulo ezijwayelekile ezithinta izinkinga ezihilelekile Gilbert (2015) , Salehi et al. (2015) , Schmidt (2013) , Williamson (2016) , Resnik, Elliott, and Miller (2015) , Zittrain (2008) . Mayelana nezinkinga ezihlobene ngokuqondile nezinkinga zomthetho nabasebenzi besixuku, bheka Felstiner (2011) . O'Connor (2013) ukhuluma imibuzo mayelana nokubhekwa kokuziphatha kokucwaninga lapho izindima zabacwaningi nabahlanganyeli befiphaza. Mayelana nezinkinga ezihlobene nokwabelana kwedatha ngenkathi zivikela abahlanganyeli kumaphrojekthi wesayensi wesakhamuzi, bona Bowser et al. (2014) . Bobabili i- Purdam (2014) no- Windt and Humphreys (2016) babe nengxoxo mayelana nezindaba zokuziphatha ekuqoqweni kwedatha esatshalaliswe. Okokugcina, amaphrojekthi amaningi avuma iminikelo kodwa anganiki abahlanganyeli isikweletu. E-Foldit, abadlali bavame ukufakwa ohlwini njengombhali (Cooper et al. 2010; Khatib et al. 2011) . Kwamanye amaphrojekthi ekholi evulekile, umxhasi onqobayo angabhala iphepha elichaza izixazululo zabo (isib. Bell, Koren, and Volinsky (2010) Dieleman, Willett, and Dambre (2015) ).
