Yini okufanele ufunde ngokulandelayo

• Isingeniso (isigaba 3.1)

Iziningi zezingqikithi zale sahluko nazo zihanjiswe kumakheli omongameli asanda ku-American Association of Public Opinion Research (AAPOR), njengalezo Dillman (2002) , Newport (2011) , Santos (2014) , no- Link (2015) .

Ukuze uthole ukwaziswa okwengeziwe umahluko phakathi kokucwaninga kocwaningo kanye nezingxoxo ezijulile, bheka Small (2009) . Okuhlobene nokuxoxwa okujulile kungumndeni wezindlela ezibizwa ngokuthi i-ethnography. Emcwaningweni we-ethnographic, abacwaningi ngokuvamile bachitha isikhathi esiningi nabalingani endaweni yabo yemvelo. Ukuze uthole ukwaziswa okwengeziwe ngokungafani phakathi kwezingxoxo ze-ethnography nokujulile, bheka Jerolmack and Khan (2014) . Ukuze uthole okwengeziwe nge-digital ethnography, bheka i- Pink et al. (2015) .

Incazelo yami yomlando wokucwaninga kocwaningi imfushane kakhulu ukuthi ingafaka eziningi zentuthuko ejabulisayo eyenziwe. Ukuze uthole olunye ulwazi lomlando, bheka Smith (1976) , Converse (1987) , no- Igo (2008) . Ukuze uthole olunye ulwazi ngomqondo wezingcingo ezintathu zocwaningo lokuhlola, bheka Groves (2011) Dillman, Smyth, and Christian (2008) (okuyinto ephula ama-eras amathathu ngokuhlukile).

Groves and Kahn (1979) inika ithuba lokushintsha phakathi kokuqala kuya kwenkathi yesibili ekucwaningweni kocwaningi ngokwenza ukuqhathanisa okuningiliziwe nokuhlokisana phakathi kokuhlola ubuso nobuso nocingo. ( ??? ) ubuke emuva ekuthuthukisweni komlando wezindlela zokulinganisa okungahleliwe.

Ukuze uthole kabanzi ukuthi ucwaningi olwenziwe ucwaningo lushintshe kanjani esikhathini esidlule ekuphenduleni izinguquko emphakathini, bheka i- Tourangeau (2004) , ( ??? ) , ne- Couper (2011) .

• Ukucela ngokulandelana (isigaba 3.2)

Amandla kanye nobuthakathaka bokubuza nokuqaphela kuye kwaxoxwa yizingqondo zengqondo (isib. Baumeister, Vohs, and Funder (2007) ) kanye Jerolmack and Khan (2014) bezenhlalakahle (isib. Jerolmack and Khan (2014) , Maynard (2014) , Cerulo (2014) ; Vaisey (2014) ; u- Jerolmack and Khan (2014) ]. Umehluko phakathi kokubuza nokubheka kuvela nakwezomnotho, lapho abacwaningi bekhuluma ngokuthandwa okuveziwe nangokwemibono. Ngokwesibonelo, umcwaningi angabuza abaphendulayo ukuthi bayathanda ukudla ice cream noma baya ejimini (okushiwo yizintandokazi), noma ubona ukuthi abantu badla kangakanani i-ayisikhilimu bese beya ejimini (okuthandwayo okuveziwe). Kukhona ukungabaza okujulile mayelana nezinhlobo ezithile zedatha okuthandayo okukhulunywa ngayo ku-economics njengoba kuchaziwe Hausman (2012) .

Isihloko esiyinhloko esivela kulezi mpikiswano ukuthi ukuziphatha okubikiwe akuhlali kunembile ngaso sonke isikhathi. Kodwa, njengoba kuchaziwe esahlukweni 2, imithombo emikhulu yedatha ingase ingabi nenembile, ingase ingaqoqiwe kwisampula yenzalo, futhi ingase ingatholakali kubacwaningi. Ngakho, ngicabanga ukuthi, kwezinye izimo, ukuziphatha okubikiwe kungasiza. Ngaphezu kwalokho, isihloko esibili esiyinhloko esivela kulezi mpikiswano siwukuthi imibiko mayelana nemizwelo, ulwazi, okulindelwe, kanye nemibono ayilona enembile ngaso sonke isikhathi. Kodwa, uma ulwazi mayelana nalezi zizwe zangaphakathi liyadingeka abacwaningi-noma ukusiza ukuchaza ukuziphatha okuthile noma into echazwe-ke ukubuza kungase kudingeke. Yiqiniso, ukufunda ngezifunda zangaphakathi ngokubuza imibuzo kungabangela inkinga ngoba ngezinye izikhathi abaphenduli ngokwabo abazi kahle izifunda zabo zangaphakathi (Nisbett and Wilson 1977) .

• Inombolo yephutha lokuhlola (isigaba 3.3)

Isahluko 1 se- Groves (2004) senza umsebenzi omuhle kakhulu wokuvumelanisa amagama asetshenziselwa abacwaningi ukuba bahlathulule uhlaka lwephutha lokuhlola. Ukuze uthole ukwelashwa ubude besikhombisi sohlaka lokuhlola iphutha lokuhlola, bheka Groves et al. (2009) , kanye nokubukwa komlando, bheka Groves and Lyberg (2010) .

Umqondo wokuphutha amaphutha ube yizici nokuhlukahluka futhi uvela ekufundeni komshini; bheka, isibonelo, isigaba 7.3 Hastie, Tibshirani, and Friedman (2009) . Lokhu kuvame ukuholela abacwaningi ukuba bakhulume nge-trade-off "ye-bias-variance".

Ngokwesimemezelo, isethulo esikhulu ezindabeni zokungabi nandaba nokungahloniphi umthetho yi-National Council Council Council Ukungazihloniphi Ezweni Zezinhlalakahle Zezenhlalakahle: I-Agenda Yokucwaninga (2013) . Olunye uhlolojikelele oluwusizo luhlinzekwa yi- Groves (2006) . Futhi, zonke izindaba ezikhethekile ze- Journal of Official Statistics , I- Public Opinion Quarterly , kanye ne- Annals ye-American Academy yezopolitiki nezenhlalakahle zishicilelwe ngesihloko sokungaphenduli. Ekugcineni, kunezinhlobo eziningi ezahlukene zokubala izinga lokuphendula; lezi zindlela zichazwe ngokuningiliziwe embikweni we-The American Association of Public Opinion Abacwaningi (AAPOR) ( ??? ) .

Ukuze uthole okwengeziwe nge-1936 Literary Digest , bheka Bryson (1976) , Squire (1988) , Cahalan (1989) , Lusinchi (2012) . Ukuze uthole enye ingxoxo ngale poll njengomxwayiso Gayo-Avello (2011) , bheka Gayo-Avello (2011) . Ngo-1936, uGeorge Gallup wasebenzisa ifomu lesisampuli esinkimbinkimbi futhi wakwazi ukukhiqiza izilinganiso ezinembile kakhulu ngesampula encane kakhulu. Ukuphumelela kukaGallup phezu kweLittary Digest kwakuyingqopha-mlando ekuthuthukiseni ucwaningo lokuhlola njengoba kuchazwe esahlukweni 3 se @ converse_survey_1987; isahluko 4 sika- Ohmer (2006) ; nesahluko 3 se-@ igo_averaged_2008.

Ngokwesilinganiso, isisombululo esikhulu sokuqala sokuklama imibuzo i- Bradburn, Sudman, and Wansink (2004) . Ukuze uthole ukwelashwa okuphambili, bheka u- Schuman and Presser (1996) , okugxile ngqo Saris and Gallhofer (2014) yesimo sengqondo, Saris and Gallhofer (2014) , okuyinto evamile. Indlela ehlukile yokulinganisa ithathwa ku-psychometrics, njengoba kuchazwe ku ( ??? ) . Okunye okusetshenziselwa ukulanda kuyatholakala Presser and Blair (1994) , Presser et al. (2004) , nesahluko 8 se- Groves et al. (2009) . Ukuze uthole okwengeziwe kokuhlolwa kokuhlola, bheka i- Mutz (2011) .

Ngokuphathelene nezindleko, ukwelashwa okujwayelekile, ubude bezinsuku zokuhweba phakathi kwezindleko zocwaningo kanye namaphutha okuhlola kuyi- Groves (2004) .

• Ubani okufanele abuze (isigaba 3.4)

Särndal, Swensson, and Wretman (2003) bokulinganisa nokulinganisela kuyi- Lohr (2009) (ukwethulwa okungaphezulu) no- Särndal, Swensson, and Wretman (2003) (okuphambili kakhulu). Ukwelashwa kwesikhala Särndal and Lundström (2005) kwe-post-stratification nezindlela ezihlobene yi- Särndal and Lundström (2005) . Kwezinye izilungiselelo ze-digital-ages, abacwaningi bayazi ngokuncane mayelana nama-nonrespondents, okwakungeke kube njalo eqinisweni esikhathini esidlule. Izinhlobo ezahlukene zokungalungi ukulungiswa kungenzeka uma abacwaningi Kalton and Flores-Cervantes (2003) , njengoba kuchaziwe Kalton and Flores-Cervantes (2003) Smith (2011) .

Ucwaningo lwe-Xbox W. Wang et al. (2015) isebenzisa inqubo ebizwa ngokuthi ukucindezelwa kwe-multilevel nokulandelwa kwe-post-stratification ("uMnu P.") evumela abacwaningi ukuba baqikelele iqembu kusho ngisho noma kunamaqembu amaningi. Nakuba kukhona ingxabano mayelana nekhwalithi yezindinganiso ezivela kule nqubo, kubonakala sengathi iyindawo ethembisayo yokuhlola. Le nqubo yaqala ukusetshenziswa Park, Gelman, and Bafumi (2004) , futhi kube nokusetshenziswa okulandelayo nokuphikisana (Gelman 2007; Lax and Phillips 2009; Pacheco 2011; Buttice and Highton 2013; Toshkov 2015) . Ukuze uthole okuningi mayelana nokuxhumana phakathi kwezisindo nezici zeqembu, bheka i- Gelman (2007) .

Ngezinye izindlela zokulinganisela ukuhlola kwewebhu, bheka Schonlau et al. (2009) , Bethlehem (2010) , Valliant and Dever (2011) . Amapaneli e-intanethi angasebenzisa noma kungenzeka ukuthi sampula noma isampula esingenakwenzeka. Ukuze uthole okwengeziwe ngamapaneli we-intanethi, bheka u- Callegaro et al. (2014) .

Ngesinye isikhathi, abacwaningi bathole ukuthi amasampula amancane namasampula (Ansolabehere and Schaffner 2014) anikeze ukulinganiswa kwekhwalithi efanayo (Ansolabehere and Schaffner 2014) , kodwa ezinye iziqhathaniso zithole ukuthi amasampula angenakwenzeka angenza okubi nakakhulu (Malhotra and Krosnick 2007; Yeager et al. 2011) . Esinye isizathu esingahle salokhu umehluko ukuthi amasampula angenakwenzeka angathuthukisiwe ngokuhamba kwesikhathi. Ngombono ongathembeki wezindlela zokungatheni ezingenakwenzeka, bheka i-AAPOR Task Force ku-Non-Possibility Sampling (Baker et al. 2013) , futhi ngiyakhuthaza ukufunda ukuhlaziywa okulandela umbiko wesifinyeto.

• Indlela yokubuza (isigaba 3.5)

Conrad and Schober (2008) ingumqulu ohleliwe othiwa Ukubonisana Ne-Survey Interview of the Future , futhi unikeza imibono ehlukahlukene mayelana nekusasa lokubuza imibuzo. Couper (2011) ikhuluma ngezihloko ezifanayo, no- Schober et al. (2015) inikeze isibonelo esihle sokuthi izindlela zokuqoqa idatha ezihlotshaniswa nesilungiselelo esisha zingabangela idatha yezinga eliphezulu. Schober and Conrad (2015) inikeza ingxabano evamile mayelana nokuqhubeka nokulungisa inqubo yocwaningo lokuhlola ukufanisa izinguquko emphakathini.

Tourangeau and Yan (2007) izinkinga zokubuyekezwa kokuzikhethela kwezenhlalakahle emphakathini imibuzo ebucayi, Lind et al. (2013) inikeze ezinye izizathu zokuthi kungani abantu bengase badalule ukwaziswa okubucayi kwinkhulumomphendvulwano ephethwe ngekhompyutha. Ukuze uthole olunye ulwazi mayelana nendima yabantu abaxoxisana nabantu ekukhuleni izinga lokubamba iqhaza ekuhloleni, bheka Maynard and Schaeffer (1997) , Maynard, Freese, and Schaeffer (2010) , Conrad et al. (2013) , no- Schaeffer et al. (2013) . Ukuze uthole okwengeziwe kokuhlola kwemodi exutshwe, bheka Dillman, Smyth, and Christian (2014) .

Stone et al. (2007) inikeza ukwelashwa ubude besikhathi sokuhlolwa kwesikhashana kanye nezindlela ezihlobene.

Ukuze uthole iseluleko esengeziwe ekwenzeni ukuhlola okuhlangenwe nakho okujabulisayo nokubalulekile kwabahlanganyeli, bheka umsebenzi kuMzila (Dillman, Smyth, and Christian 2014) . Ngenye isibonelo esithakazelisayo sokusebenzisa izinhlelo zokusebenza ze-Facebook zezinhlolovo zesayensi yezenhlalakahle, bheka Bail (2015) .

• Ukuhlola okuhlobene nemithombo emikhulu yedatha (isigaba 3.6)

Judson (2007) uchaza inqubo yokuhlanganisa ukuhlola kanye nedatha yokuphatha ngokuthi "ukuhlanganiswa kolwazi" futhi uxoxe ngezinzuzo ezithile zalendlela, kanye nokunikeza izibonelo ezithile.

Mayelana nokubuza okucebile, kuye kwaba nemizamo eminingi yangaphambilini yokuqinisekisa ukuvota. Ukuze uthole ukwaziswa okuningiliziwe ngalezo zincwadi, bheka Belli et al. (1999) , u- Ansolabehere and Hersh (2012) , Hanmer, Banks, and White (2014) , Berent, Krosnick, and Lupia (2016) . Bheka Berent, Krosnick, and Lupia (2016) ukuze uthole umbono Ansolabehere and Hersh (2012) nemiphumela yemiphumela evezwe ku- Ansolabehere and Hersh (2012) .

Kubalulekile ukuqaphela ukuthi nakuba u-Ansolabehere no-Hersh bakhuthazwa ngekhwalithi yedatha esuka ku-Catalist, ezinye izilinganiso zabathengisi bezebhizinisi bezilokhu zingathandeki kakhulu. Pasek et al. (2014) ithole izinga elibi lapho idatha evela ocwaningweni iqhathaniswa nefayili yomthengi evela ku-Marketing Systems Group (eyazihlanganisa yona idatha evela kubahlinzeki abathathu: i-Acxiom, i-Experian, ne-InfoUSA). Okokuthi, ifayela ledatha alihambisani nezimpendulo zocwaningo abacwaningi abalindele ukulungisa, ifayela lomthengi lalingekho idatha yemininingwana eminingi yemibandela, futhi iphethini yedatha elahlekile ihlotshaniswa nenani lokuhlola elibikiwe (ngamanye amazwi, abalahlekile idatha yayihlelekile, hhayi okungahleliwe).

Ukuze uthole okwengeziwe ekuxhumaneni kwerekhodi phakathi kokuhlola kanye nedatha yokuphatha, bheka Sakshaug and Kreuter (2012) Schnell (2013) . Ukuze uthole okwengeziwe kokuxhumanisa irekhodi ngokujwayelekile, bheka Dunn (1946) Fellegi and Sunter (1969) (omlando) Larsen and Winkler (2014) (okwamanje). Izindlela ezifanayo nazo zakhiwe kumakhompiyutha wesayensi ngaphansi kwamagama anjengokudambululwa kwedatha, ukuhlonza isenzo, ukufaniswa kwegama, ukuhlolwa okuphindwe kabili, nokutholakala kwerekhodi eyimpinda (Elmagarmid, Ipeirotis, and Verykios 2007) . Kukhona futhi izindlela zokulondoloza ubumfihlo zokurekhoda ukuxhuma okungadingi ukudluliselwa kolwazi lokukhomba (Schnell 2013) . Abacwaningi ku-Facebook bathuthukise inqubo yokuhlanganisa ngokungafani ukurekhoda kwabo ekuziphatheni kokuvota (Jones et al. 2013) ; lokhu kuhlanganiswa kwenziwa ukuze kuhlolwe ukuhlolwa engizokutshela ngakho esahlukweni 4 (Bond et al. 2012) . Ukuze uthole okwengeziwe mayelana nokuthola imvume yokuxhumanisa irekhodi, bheka Sakshaug et al. (2012) .

Esinye isibonelo sokuxhumanisa inhlolovo enkulu yezenhlalakahle emakhokheni wokuphatha kahulumeni avela ku-Survey Health and Survey Administration. Ukuze uthole okwengeziwe kulolu cwaningo, kufaka phakathi ulwazi mayelana nenqubo yokuvuma, bheka u-Olson (1996, 1999) .

Inqubo yokuhlanganisa imithombo eminingi yamarekhodi okuphatha ibe i-masterfilefile eyinhloko-inqubo eyenziwa yiCatalist-ivame emahhovisi ezinombolo zabanye uhulumeni kazwelonke. Abacwaningi ababili baseStatistics Sweden babhale incwadi eningiliziwe ngesihloko (Wallgren and Wallgren 2007) . Isibonelo sale ndlela endaweni eyodwa e-United States (i-Olmstead County, eNigeria; ikhaya leMayo Clinic), bheka Sauver et al. (2011) . Ukuze uthole amaphutha angabonakala kumarekhodi wokuphatha, bheka Groen (2012) .

Enye indlela abacwaningi abangasebenzisa ngayo imithombo emikhulu yedatha ekucwaningweni kocwaningo njengenhlaka yesampula yabantu abanezici ezithile. Ngeshwa, le ndlela ingabangela imibuzo ephathelene nobumfihlo (Beskow, Sandler, and Weinberger 2006) .

Ngokuphathelene nokukhuliswa okuphakanyisiwe ukubuza, le ndlela ayiyona entsha njengoba ingase ibonakale kusukela ekuchazeni kwami. Ixhumano olujulile ezindaweni ezintathu ezinkulu ezibalo: ukulandelwa kwe-model-based-stratification (Little 1993) , imputation (Rubin 2004) , kanye nokulinganisa kwamancane (Rao and Molina 2015) . Kuhlobene nokusetshenziswa kwezimo eziguquguqukayo ekucwaningeni kwezokwelapha (Pepe 1992) .

Izindleko nezindleko zesikhathi e- Blumenstock, Cadamuro, and On (2015) zibhekisela ngaphezulu ezindleko eziguquguqukayo-izindleko Blumenstock, Cadamuro, and On (2015) inhlolovo eyengeziwe-futhi azibandakanyi izindleko ezihleliwe ezifana nezindleko zokuhlanza nokucubungula idatha yocingo. Ngokuvamile, ukukhulunywa ngokucacile ukubuza kuzoba nezindleko eziphakeme eziphezulu kanye nezindleko eziguquguqukayo ezifana nezizo zokuhlola okuyidijithali (bheka isahluko 4). Ukuze uthole okuningi mayelana nokuhlola okusekelwe efonini emazweni asathuthuka, bheka Dabalen et al. (2016) .

Ukuze uthole imibono mayelana nendlela yokwenza ngcono ngokubuza okungcono, ngingathanda ukuncoma ukufunda okuningi mayelana nokushicilelwa okuningi (Rubin 2004) . Futhi, uma abacwaningi bekhulisa ukucela ukunakekelwa ngezibalo ezihlangene, kunokuba kube nezici ezingeni elilodwa, khona-ke izindlela King and Lu (2008) Hopkins and King (2010) zingasiza. Okokugcina, ngokuningi mayelana nendlela yokufunda ngomshini Blumenstock, Cadamuro, and On (2015) , bheka James et al. (2013) (ukwethulwa okungaphezulu) noma Hastie, Tibshirani, and Friedman (2009) (okuphambili kakhulu).

Inkinga eyodwa yokuziphatha ngokuphathelene ne-amplified asking is ingasetshenziselwa ukuveza izici ezibucayi abantu abangase bangakhethi ekudaleni kulolu cwaningo njengoba kuchazwe Kosinski, Stillwell, and Graepel (2013) .