Oku kuya kuba nesihlomelo zobugcisa kwi-sikhokelo iziphumo ezinokubakho; ukuze ufumane inkcazelo engakumbi, funda Morgan and Winship (2014) kunye Imbens and Rubin (2015) . Isihlomelo iyakuvakalisa iingcamango zilandelayo ngokwemiqathango amandla kwiziphumo:
Kananjalo isihlomelo iya kubandakanya uthelekiso lezifundo phakathi-, ngaphakathi-izifundo, kunye noyilo exutyiweyo. Isihlomelo kwakhona kubandakanya ulwazi malunga ngokusebenzisa ulwazi pre-unyango kuyilo okanye uhlalutyo.