5.2.1 Galaxy Zoo

I-Galaxy Zoo idibanise imizamo yabaninzi abavolontiya abangengcali ukuba bahlele iigraxies zezigidi.

I-Galaxy Zoo yaphuma kwimiba ejongene noKevin Schawinski, umfundi ophumelele kwi-Astronomy kwiYunivesithi yaseOxford ngo-2007. Ukunciphisa kancane, i-Schawinski inomdla kwimigulane, kwaye imilambo ingabalwa yi-morphology-elliptical okanye i-spiral-kwaye ngombala wabo-obomvu okanye obomvu. Ngelo xesha, ubulumko obuqhelekileyo phakathi kwabadlali beenkwenkwezi bezinto eziqhelekileyo, njengeMilky Way, yayinombala ohlaza okwesibhakabhaka (okubonisa ulutsha) kunye neelliptical galaxyes ebomvu (ebonisa ubudala). I-Schawinski yayingathandabuzeki obu bulumko obuqhelekileyo. Ukhumbule ukuba ngelixa le pateni inokuba yinyaniso ngokubanzi, kwakukho inani elincinci lokungabikho, nokuba ngokufunda ezininzi zeendluko eziqhelekanga-ezingazange zifanelane nomzekelo ofanelekileyo-unokufunda okuthile malunga nenkqubo iindidi.

Ngaloo ndlela, oko uSchawinski ayifunayo ukwenzela ukuguqula ubulumko obuqhelekileyo kwakuyiqela elikhulu lamagalaxi; oko kukuthi, iigalaxi eziye zahlulwa njenge-spiral okanye elliptical. Ingxaki, nangona kunjalo, ukuba iindlela ezikhoyo ze-algorithm zokuhlela azizange zilungele ukusetyenziswa kwenzululwazi; Ngamanye amagama, ukuhlukanisa iigalaxi kwakukho, ingxaki eyayinzima kwiikhomputha. Ngoko ke, yintoni Kwakufuneka inani elikhulu leminyele -classified zabantu. I-Schawinski ithathe le ngxaki yokuhlelwa ngentshiseko yomfundi ophumelele. Kwiseshoni ye-marathon yeentsuku ezisixhenxe zeeyure eziyi-12, wakwazi ukuhlukanisa iindidi ezingama-50,000. Ngelixa iindidi ezingama-50,000 zingathi zandile, kunene kuphela malunga ne-5% yezigidimi ezizigidi eziye zafotshwa kwi-Sloan Digital Sky Survey. U-Schawinski waqonda ukuba wayefuna indlela enokutsha.

Ngethamsanqa, kuvele elubala ukuba umsebenzi iminyele zokuhlela ayifuni uqeqesho ngeenkwenkwezi; unako ukufundisa umntu ukuba enze oko ngokukhawuleza. Ngamanye amazwi, nangona zokuhlela iminyele ngumsebenzi ukuba nzima iikhompyutha, nto intle lula ngabantu. Ngoko, xa wayehleli thwengisa e Oxford, Schawinski kunye ngeenkwenkwezi namanye Chris Lintott waphupha i website apho matsha uhlele imifanekiso iminyele. Kwiinyanga ezimbalwa kamva, Galaxy Zoo wazalwa.

Kwiwebhsayithi yeGalaxy Zoo, amavolontiya aya kuba nemizuzu embalwa yoqeqesho; umzekelo, ukufunda ummahluko phakathi kwegalaxy enomoya kunye ne-elliptical (umfanekiso 5.2). Emva koku qeqeshwa, iivolontiya nganye kwafuneka idlule imibuzo elula-ngokuchanekileyo yokuhlukanisa iigraxies ezili-11 ze-15 kunye nezigaba ezaziwa-kwaye ziza kuqala udidi lwemibala engaziwayo ngokusebenzisa i-interface-based interface (umfanekiso 5.3). Utshintsho olusuka kwivavolonti ukuya kwi-astronomer luya kwenzeka ngaphantsi kwemizuzu engama-10 kwaye lufunwa kuphela ukudlula izithintelo eziphantsi, imibuzo elula.

Umzekeliso 5.2: Imizekelo yeendidi ezimbini eziphambili zemilhala: i-spiral ne-elliptical. Iprojekthi yeGalaxy Zoo isebenzisa amavolontiya angaphezu kwe-100 000 ukuba ahlule imifanekiso engaphezu kwama-900,000. Ikhutshwe ngemvume evela kwi- http: //www.GalaxyZoo.org kunye neSeran Sky Survey .

Umzobo 5.3: Iskrini sokufaka apho iivolontiya zacelwa ukuba zihlele umfanekiso omnye. Ikhutshwe ngemvume evela kuChris Lintott esekelwe umfanekiso ovela kwi- Sloan Digital Sky Survey .

I-Galaxy Zoo yakhanga amavolontiya ayo okuqala emva kweprojekthi echazwe kwinqaku leendaba, kwaye kwinyanga ezili-6 iphrojekthi yakhula iquka abantu abangaphezu kwe-100 000 besayense bemihlali, abantu abathatha inxaxheba ngenxa yokuba bayayivuyela umsebenzi kwaye babefuna ukukunceda ukuhamba phambili kweenkwenkwezi. Ngokubambisana, la mavolontiya angama-100,000 anikezele isamba semali engaphezu kwezigidi ezingama-40, kwaye uninzi lwezigaba ezivela kwiqela elincinci labafundi (Lintott et al. 2008) .

Abaphandi abanamava abaqeshwe ngabacebisi beze-undergraduate research basenokungathembeki ngokukhawuleza ngekhwalithi yedatha. Nangona le nkcazo isengqiqweni, i-Galaxy Zoo ibonisa ukuba xa iminikelo yokuzithandela ihlambulukile kakuhle, ingahlambulukanga kwaye ihlanganiswe, ingavelisa iziphumo eziphezulu (Lintott et al. 2008) . Inkcazelo ebalulekileyo yokufumana isihlwele ekudaleni idatha yekhwalithi ye-quality- redundancy , oko kukuthi, enomsebenzi ofanayo owenziwa ngabantu abaninzi. Kwi-Galaxy Zoo, kwakukho izigaba ezingama-40 ngokwemilayezo; Abaphandi abasebenzisa abacebisi beze-digrographicing research are unable to afford this level of redundancy kwaye ngoko kuya kufuneka ukuba banokukhathazeka kakhulu ngomgangatho ngamnye wokwahlula. Oko amavolontiya ayengenakho ukuqeqeshwa, ayenzela i-redundancy.

Nangona ngezigaba ezininzi kwi-galaxy, nangona kunjalo, ukudibanisa isethi yamacandelo okuvolontiya ukuvelisa ukulungelelanisa kwabaqhinga. Ngenxa yokuba imingeni efana nayo ivela kwiiprojekthi ezininzi zokucwangcisa abantu, kunceda ukuphonononga ngokufutshane amanyathelo amathathu abaphandi beGalaxy Zoo basebenzise ukuvelisa izivumelwano zabo. Okokuqala, abaphandi "bahlambulula" idatha ngokususa izihlomelo ezimbi. Ngokomzekelo, abantu ababeka ngokuphindaphindiweyo i-galaxy efanayo-into eyenzekayo xa bezama ukuqhuba iziphumo-zonke zazo zahlulwa. Oku kunye nokuhlanjululwa okufanayo kususwe malunga ne-4% yazo zonke izigaba.

Okwesibini, emva kokucoca, abaphandi bafuna ukususa izinto ezichanekileyo ekuhlaleni. Ngoluhlu lwezinto ezifunyanisiweyo zokufunyaniswa zifakwe ngaphakathi kwiprojekthi yasekuqaleni-umzekelo, kubonisa ezinye iivolontiya i-galaxy kwi-monochrome endaweni yombala-abaphandi bafumanisa izinto ezinqamlekileyo ezinjengeendlela eziqhelanisiweyo zokukhetha iindidi eziqhelekileyo ezinjengama-elliptical galaxies (Bamford et al. 2009) . Ukulungelelaniswa kwezi zinto ezibaluleke kakhulu kubaluleke kakhulu kuba ukulungiswa kwemali akuthinteli ngokuzenzekelayo ukuxhatshazwa kwenkqubo; kukunceda kuphela ukususa iphutha elingalindelekanga.

Ekugqibeleni, emva kokunyaniseka, abaphandi babefuna indlela yokudibanisa ukuhlelwa kwamanani ngamnye ukuvelisa ukulinganisa. Indlela elula yokudibanisa ukuhlelwa kwimiqolo nganye yegalaxy yayiza kuba ukhetha udidi oluqhelekileyo. Nangona kunjalo, le ndlela yayiza kunika isantya ngasinye isisindo esifanayo, kwaye abaphandi bacinga ukuba amanye amavolontiya ayengcono ekuhlelweni kunabanye. Ngako oko, abaphandi baqalisa inkqubo enzima yokwenza umsebenzi wokuzama ukuzama ukuzama ukufumana izicatshulwa ezilungileyo kwaye zinike ubunzima obukhulu.

Ngaloo ndlela, emva kwenkqubo yesinyathelo esithathu-ukucoca, ukuhlambalaza, nokulinganisela-iqela lophando lweGalaxy Zoo liguqule izigaba ezizigidi ezingama-40 zokuzivolontiya zibe yi-set of consensus. Xa ezi zigaba zeGalaxy Zoo zithelekiswa nemizamo emithathu eyadlulileyo yamanqwanqwa ayingcali, kuquka udidi lweSchawinski olwanceda ukukhuthaza iGalaxy Zoo, kwakukho isivumelwano esinamandla. Ngaloo ndlela, amavolontiya, ngokubanzi, akwazi ukubonelela ngezigaba eziphezulu kunye nezinga abaphandi abazange balinganise (Lintott et al. 2008) . Enyanisweni, ngokuba nokuhlukaniswa kwabantu kwimiba emikhulu, iSchawinski, iLintott kunye nabanye babenakho ukubonisa ukuba kuphela malunga ne-80% yemigulane ilandelelanisa imimoya eluhlaza-bhakabhaka kunye ne-ellipticals ebomvu-kwaye amaninzi amanqaku abhaliwe malunga oku kufumanisa (Fortson et al. 2011) .

Ngenxa yale mvelaphi, ngoku ungabona indlela i-Galaxy Zoo elandela ngayo i-recipe-application-combine recipe, iresiphi efanayo esetyenziselwa ezininzi iiprojekthi zeenkomfa. Okokuqala, ingxaki enkulu ikwahlukana . Kule meko, ingxaki yokuhlukanisa iigraxies zezigidi zahlula kwiingxaki zezigidi zokubeka i-galaxy enye. Okulandelayo, utyando lisetyenziswe lesiqa ngamnye ngokuzimeleyo. Kule meko, amavolontiya ahlukanisa i-galaxy nganye njengoko ihamba okanye i-elliptical. Ekugqibeleni, iziphumo zidibaniswe ukuvelisa iziphumo zokuvumelana. Kule meko, isinyathelo sokudibanisa siquka ukucoca, ukuhlambalaza, nokulinganisela ukuvelisa ukulungelelaniswa kwendima nganye. Nangona ezininzi iiprojekthi zisebenzisa le recipe jikelele, isinyathelo ngasinye kufuneka senziwe ngokweenkcukacha kwiinkalo ezithile ezijongene nazo. Ngokomzekelo, kwiprogram yokuqulunqwa komntu echazwe ngezantsi, i-recipe efanayo iya kulandelwa, kodwa ukusetyenziswa nokudibanisa amanyathelo kuya kuhluka.

Iqela leGalaxy Zoo, le projekthi yokuqala yayiqala nje. Ngokukhawuleza bafumanisa ukuba nangona babenakho ukuhlukanisa iigraxies ezizigidi, lesi sikali asanele ukuba sisebenze kunye nokuhlola okutsha kwedijithali esitsha, okungavelisa imifanekiso yee-galaxies eziyi-10 zezigidi (Kuminski et al. 2014) . Ukusingatha ukwanda ukusuka kwi-1 yezigidi ukuya kwii-10 ezigidi-mali-i-10 000 ye-Galaxy Zoo iya kufuna ukufumana amaqela angama-10 000 athatha inxaxheba. Nangona inani lamavolontiya kwi-intanethi likhulu, alikho. Ngako oko, abaphandi bafumanisa ukuba ukuba baya kuqhuba ixabiso lexesha elikhulayo lwedata, kwakudingeka indlela entsha, eyona ndlela ikhutshwe ngayo.

Ngako oko, uManda Banerji-esebenzisana noSchawinski, iLintott, kunye namanye amalungu eqela leGalaxy Zoo (2010) -i-computer yokufundisa ukuqala ukubeka imiqolo. Ngokukodwa, usebenzisa i-classification yabantu eyenziwe yiGalaxy Zoo, i-Banerji yakha umzekelo wokufunda umatshini onokuqikelela ukuhlelwa koluntu kwinthalami esekelwe kwimpawu zomfanekiso. Ukuba le modeli ingakwazi ukuvelisa izigaba zabantu ngokuchaneka okuphezulu, ngoko ingasetyenzwa ngabaphandi beGalaxy Zoo ukukhetha inani elingenamkhawulo lemiqolo.

Inqobo yeBerji kunye neendlela osebenza nabo ngokuqhelekileyo zifana neendlela eziqhelekileyo ezisetyenziselwa uphando loluntu, nangona ukuba ukufana kungenakucaca ekuqalekeni. Okokuqala, Banerji noogxa basenza umfanekiso nganye ibe iseti iimpawu kwamanani kuthwa iimpawu zayo. Ngokomzekelo, kwimifanekiso yemigqirha, kunokubakho izinto ezintathu: ubuninzi bomluhlaza emfanekisweni, ukungafani ekukhanyeni kwamaphikseli, kunye nenani lamaphikseli angewona amhlophe. Ukukhethwa kwezixhobo ezichanekileyo yingxenye ebalulekileyo yengxaki, kwaye ngokubanzi ifuna ubuchule bendawo. Eli nyathelo lokuqala, elibizwa ngokuba yijinjini yobunjineli , lubangela umthamo weedatha kunye nomqolo omnye ngomfanekiso kwaye iikholomu ezintathu zichaza loo mfanekiso. Ukunikezelwa kwematriki kunye nedatha efunwayo (umzekelo, nokuba umfanekiso uhlelwe ngumntu njenge-elliptical galaxy), umphandi udala imodeli yokufunda okanye imashishini-umzekelo, ukulungelelaniswa kwezinto-ezichaza ubungqungquthela babantu ngokusekelwe kwiimpawu womfanekiso. Ekugqibeleni, umphandi usebenzisa i-parameters kule modeli yokubala ukuvelisa izigaba zamarhaqo amatsha (umfanekiso 5.4). Ekufundeni komatshini, le ndlela-usebenzisa imizekelo ebhaliweyo yokudala imodeli engayibhalela idatha entsha-ibizwa ngokuba yi- supervised learning .

Umzobo 5.4: Inkcazo ecacileyo indlela Banerji et al. (2010) isetyenziselwa ukuhlukanisa i-Galaxy Zoo ukuqeqesha imodeli yokufunda imashishini ukwenza udidi lwama-galaxy. Imifanekiso yemilalane yaguqulwa kwi-matrix yeempawu. Kulo mzekelo olula, kukho impawu ezintathu (isixa esibhakabhaka emfanekisweni, ukungafani ekukhanyeni kwamaphikiseli, kunye nenani lama-pixels angamawundu). Emva koko, kwi-subset yemifanekiso, iilebula zeGalaxy Zoo zisetyenziselwa ukuqeqesha umzekelo wokufunda umatshini. Ekugqibeleni, ukufundwa komatshini kusetyenziselwa ukuqikelela ukuhlelwa kwemigangatho yamasebe. Ndibiza ngokuba yiprojekti yenkcazo yabantu yokuncedisa ikhompyutha kuba, kunokuba abantu baxazulule ingxaki, abantu bakha i-dataset engasetyenziselwa ukuqeqesha ikhompyutheni ukuyicombulula ingxaki. Inzuzo yale nkqubo yokuqulunqwa komntu yinkxaso-khompyutha kukuba kukunceda ukwazi ukujongana nemali engapheliyo yedatha usebenzisa kuphela umlinganiselo wokugqibela lomntu. Imifanekiso yemilalane eyenziwe ngemvume evela kuSeran Digital Sky Survey .

Impawu e-Banerji kunye nomzekelo wokufundela umatshini wokusebenza komatshini kwakuyinkimbinkimbi kunezo zemizekelo yam yokudlala-umzekelo, wayesebenzisa iimpawu ezinjenge "de Vaucouleurs ezilinganayo ne-axial ratio" Ukusebenzisa iimpawu zakhe, imodeli yakhe, kunye nokulinganisa kweGalaxy Zoo, wakwazi ukudala izixhobo kwizinto ezizodwa, kwaye ke usebenzisa ezi zixhobo ukwenza izibikezelo malunga nokuhlelwa kwemiqolo. Ngokomzekelo, uhlalutyo lwakhe lufumene ukuba imifanekiso enezantsi "de Vaucouleurs ifanelana ne-axial ratio" yayinokuba yinto eninzi yokuba yimizila yendiza. Ukubonelelwa kwezi zinyithi, wayekwazi ukuqikelela ukuhlelwa komntu we-galaxy ngokuchanekileyo ngokuchanekileyo.

Umsebenzi weBanji kunye noogxa bawo bajika iGalaxy Zoo kwinto endiyibiza ngokuba nenkqubo yokuqulunqwa komntu . Indlela efanelekileyo yokucinga ngale nkqubo ye-hybridi kukuba kunokuba abantu baxazulule ingxaki, banabantu bakha i-dataset engasetyenziselwa ukuqeqesha ikhompyutheni ukuyicombulula ingxaki. Ngamanye amaxesha, ukuqeqesha ikhompyutheni ukusombulula ingxaki kunokufuna imimiselo emininzi, kwaye indlela yodwa yokuvelisa inani elaneleyo lemizekelo yintsebenziswano yobuninzi. Inzuzo yale ndlela yokuncedisa ikhompuyutha kukuba kukukunceda ukuphatha ubuninzi beemali ezingapheliyo ngokusebenzisa kuphela umlinganiselo wemizamo yabantu. Ngokomzekelo, umphandi onemiqolo yesigidi esichazwe ngabantu abayizigidi angakha imodeli yokuqikelela engasetyenziselwa ukuhlukanisa iibhiliyoni okanye iindidi zezigidigidi. Ukuba kukho inani elikhulu lemiqolo, ngoko-ke uhlobo lohlobo lwe-computer-hybrid luyisisombululo kuphela. Oku kungagqibekanga okungafaniyo akukho nto, nangona kunjalo. Ukwakha imodeli yokufunda ngomatshini engakwazi ukuvelisa ngokucacileyo ukuhlula kwabantu yinto enzima, kodwa inqabile ukuba sele sele iincwadi ezivelele kakhulu ezizinikezelwe kwesi sihloko (Hastie, Tibshirani, and Friedman 2009; Murphy 2012; James et al. 2013) .

I-Galaxy Zoo ngumzekelo omhle weendlela ezininzi zeeprojekthi zokuqulunqwa kwabantu. Okokuqala, umphandi uzama iprojekthi ngokwayo okanye ngeqela elincinci labancedisi bezophando (umz., Umzamo wokuqala weSchawinski). Ukuba le ndlela ayikwazi ukukhula kakuhle, umphandi angakwazi ukuhamba kwiprojekthi yokuqulunqwa komntu kunye nabathathi-nxaxheba abaninzi. Kodwa, ngenxa yevolumu ethile yedata, umzamo wendalo omsulwa awunako. Ngelo xesha, abaphandi bafuna ukwakha inkqubo yokuqulunqwa komntu ekhompyutheni ekuncediswa ngayo abantu ukuqeqesha umzekelo wokufunda umatshini onokusetyenziswa kwiimali ezingenamkhawulo zedatha.