Yintoni oza kufunda ngokulandelayo

• Intshayelelo (icandelo 5.1)

Ubambiswano obuninzi budibanisa imibono evela kwisayensi yommi , ukuxhamla abantu , kunye nolwazi oluhlangeneyo . Inzululwazi yesininzi isho ngokubandakanya "abemi" (okt, izazinzulu) kwinkqubo yesayensi; ngokubanzi, bona Crain, Cooper, and Dickinson (2014) kunye Bonney et al. (2014) . Izihlwele ziqhele ukuthetha ukuthabatha ingxaki ngokusisombululo ngaphakathi kwintlangano kwaye kunokuba isetyenziswe kwisihlwele; ngaphezulu, jonga Howe (2009) . Ulwaphulo oluqokelelwa ngokuqhelekileyo luthetha amaqela abantu abenza ngokubambisana ngeendlela ezibonakala ziyingqondi; ngaphezulu, bona Malone and Bernstein (2015) . Nielsen (2012) isingeniso sobude bebakala kumandla obambiswano obuninzi bophando lwezenzululwazi.

Zininzi iintlobo zobambiswano obuninzi ezingahambelani kakuhle kwiintlobo ezintathu endizicetyisayo, kwaye ndicinga ukuba ezintathu zazo zifanelwe ingqwalasela ekhethekileyo kuba zinokuba luncedo kuluntu uphando. Omnye umzekelo iimarike zokubikezela, apho abathathi-nxaxheba bathengi kwaye bathengise iikontraki ezihlawulelwayo ngokusekelwe kwiziphumo ezenzeka kwihlabathi. Ukuthengiswa kweemarike kusetyenziswa ngamafemu kunye noorhulumente ukuba baqikelele, kwaye baye basebenzisa abaphandi (Dreber et al. 2015) kwezifundo ezipapasho zengqondo (Dreber et al. 2015) . Ukujonga ngokubanzi imarike yokubikezela, khangela Wolfers and Zitzewitz (2004) kunye Arrow et al. (2008) .

Umzekelo wesibini ongahambelani kakuhle kwisikimu sam sigaba sePolyMath, apho abaphandi babambisana ngokusebenzisa iiblogs kunye ne-wikis ukubonisa ubungqina bemizimba emitsha. Iprojekthi yePolMMath ngeendlela ezithile ezifana neNetflix Prize, kodwa kule projekthi abathathi-nxaxheba bazakhele ngokukhawuleza kwizicombululo zabanye. Ukufumana okungakumbi kwiprojekthi yePolyMath, jonga Gowers and Nielsen (2009) , Cranshaw and Kittur (2011) , i- Nielsen (2012) kunye no- Kloumann et al. (2016) .

Umzekelo wesithathu ongahambelananga kakuhle kwisikimu sam sigaba soluhlelo luxhomekeke kwixesha lokuxhaswa kwexesha elinjenge-Arhente yoPhando loPhando oluPhambili (i-DARPA) Inselelo yenethiwekhi (okt, i-Red Balloon Challenge). Ukufumana oku ngakumbi kule mibutho yokuxhaswa kwexesha ukujonga Pickard et al. (2011) , Tang et al. (2011) , kunye Rutherford et al. (2013) .

• Ukubala kwabantu (icandelo 5.2)

Igama elithi "ukuhlaziywa kwabantu" livela emsebenzini owenziwe yizinzululwazi zekhompyutheni, kwaye ukuqonda umongo kule phando kuya kuphucula ikhono lakho lokukhetha iingxaki ezinokufanelana nazo. Kweminye imisebenzi, iikhomputha zi namandla kakhulu, ezinamandla kunene kwezo zakhono zabantu. Ngokomzekelo, kwi-chess, iikhomputha ziyakwazi ukubetha ngisho nabaphathi bahamba phambili. Kodwa-kwaye oku kuyanconywa kakuhle yenzululwazi zentlalo-ngeminye imisebenzi, iikhomputha zinyanya kakhulu kunabantu. Ngamanye amazwi, ngoku ulunge ngakumbi kunokuba kukho ikhompyutha eyinkqinkqileyo kwimisebenzi ethile ebandakanya ukucwangciswa kwemifanekiso, ividyo, i-audio kunye neetekisi. Iingcali zesayensi zekhompyutha ezisebenzayo kule mi sebenzi enzima-ye-computer-lula-sebenzi-yabantu ke yaqonda ukuba ingaquka abantu kwinkqubo yabo yokuqulunqa. Nantsi indlela uLuis von Ahn (2005) achaza ukubala komntu xa eqala ukuqulunqa igama kwixeshana zakhe: "iparadi yokusebenzisa amandla okusetyenziswa kwabantu ukuxazulula iingxaki iikhomputha ezingenako ukusombulula. umxholo oqhelekileyo wekota, bona Law and Ahn (2011) .

Ngokweenkcazo ezicetywayo ku- Ahn (2005) Foldit-endichazwe kwicandelo kwiifowuni ezivulekileyo-kunokuqwalaselwa njengeprojekti yomntu. Nangona kunjalo, ndikhetha ukuhlula iFoldit njengefowuni evulekileyo kuba kufuna izakhono ezizodwa (nangona kungenjalo ukuqeqeshwa ngokusemthethweni) kwaye kuthatha isisombululo esona siphumo esihle kunokuba isebenzise isicwangciso-ndawonye sokusebenzisana.

Igama elithi "ukuhlukana-sicelo-ukuhlanganiswa" lisetyenziswe Wickham (2011) ukuchaza isicwangciso sekhomputha yecatshulwa, kodwa lithatha ngokupheleleyo inkqubo yeeprojekthi zeenkqubela zabantu. Isicwangciso sokudibanisa-sisebenzisana-sakhiwo siyafana nesakhelo seMaphu esaphuhliswayo ku-Google; ngokubanzi kwiMephuReduce, jonga Dean and Ghemawat (2004) kunye Dean and Ghemawat (2008) . Ukufumana okungakumbi kwezinye iindawo zokuqulunqa iikhompyutha, bona Vo and Silvia (2016) . Isahluko 3 Law and Ahn (2011) sinokuxubusha kweeprojekthi ezinenkqantosi ezidibeneyo zidibanisa amanyathelo kunezo kwesi sahluko.

Kwiiprojekthi zeenkomfa zabantu eziye ndaxoxa ngazo kwisahluko, abathathi-nxaxheba bebazi oko kwenzekayo. Kodwa ezinye iiprojekthi, ke, zifuna ukuthatha "umsebenzi" osuyenzekayo (ofana neBird) kwaye ngaphandle kokwazisa ngokuthatha inxaxheba. Jonga, umzekelo, uMdlalo we-ESP (Ahn and Dabbish 2004) kunye ne-RECAPTCHA (Ahn et al. 2008) . Nangona kunjalo, zombini ezi projekthi ziphakamisa nemibuzo yokuziphatha ngenxa yokuba abathathi-nxaxheba abazange bazi ukuba idatha yabo isetyenziswe njani (Zittrain 2008; Lung 2012) .

Uphefumlelwe yi-ESP Game, abaphandi abaninzi baye bazama ukuphuhlisa ezinye "imidlalo kunye nenjongo" (Ahn and Dabbish 2008) (oko kukuthi, "imidlalo yokuqulunqwa kwabantu" (Pe-Than, Goh, and Lee 2015) ) esetyenziselwa ukusombulula iintlobo zezinye iingxaki. Yiyiphi into efana nale "midlalo enenjongo" yokuba bazama ukwenza imisebenzi ebandakanyekayo ekubaleni kwabantu. Ngaloo ndlela, ngelixa i-ESP Game share share the same-use-joint structure structure with Galaxy Zoo, ihluke kwindlela abathathi-nxaxheba abashukunyiswa ngayo-ukuzonwabisa kunye nesifiso sokunceda isayensi. Ukufumana okungaphezulu kwimidlalo ngenjongo, khangela i- Ahn and Dabbish (2008) .

Inkcazo yam yeGalaxy Zoo idonsa Nielsen (2012) , i- Adams (2012) , Clery (2011) , Hand (2010) , kwaye ukunikezwa kwam kweenjongo zophando zeGalaxy Zoo kwalula. Ngezinye iinkcukacha kwimbali yokwahlukana kwemithala yeenkwenkwezi kwi-astronomy nendlela iGalaxy Zoo iqhuba ngayo le nkcubeko, bona Masters (2012) kunye Marshall, Lintott, and Fletcher (2015) . Ukwakha kwi-Galaxy Zoo, abaphandi bagqiba i-Galaxy Zoo 2 eqokelele ngaphezu kwezigidi ezingama-60 ezingaphezu kwezigidi ezihlukeneyo zokuhlaziywa kwamatyevolontiya (Masters et al. 2011) . Ukuqhubela phambili, baxhuma kwiingxaki ngaphandle kwe-galaxy morphology, kuquka ukuhlola ubuso beNyanga, ukukhangela amaplanethi, nokuguqula amaxwebhu amadala. Okwangoku, zonke iiprojekthi zazo ziqokelelwa kwiwebhusayithi ye-Zooniverse (Cox et al. 2015) . Enye yeeprojekthi-I-Snapshot ye-Serengeti-inikeza ubungqina bokuba iiprojekthi ze-Galaxy Zoo-zohlobo lweefayile zinokuthi zenziwe ngophando lwendalo (Swanson et al. 2016) .

Abaphandi abacwangcisela ukusebenzisa i-microtask emakethe yomsebenzi (umzekelo, i-Amazon Mechanical Turk) kwiprojekthi yokuqulunqwa komntu, i- Chandler, Paolacci, and Mueller (2013) kunye no- J. Wang, Ipeirotis, and Provost (2015) banikeza iingcebiso ezintle malunga nokuyila umsebenzi neminye imiba enxulumene nayo. Porter, Verdery, and Gaddis (2016) banikeza imizekelo kunye neengcebiso ezijoliswe ngokukodwa ekusetyenzisweni kweemakethi zemisebenzi ye-microtask kwizinto abazibiza ngokuthi "ukunyuswa kwedatha." Umgca phakathi kokunyuswa kwedatha kunye nokuqokelela idatha kuphazamisekile. Ukufumana okunye ekuqokeleleni nasekusebenziseni amaleyibhile ekufundeni Grimmer and Stewart (2013) , khangela Grimmer and Stewart (2013) .

Abaphandi abanomdla ekudaleni oko ndibizile iinkqubo zokuncedisa iikhomputha zabantu (umz., Iinkqubo ezisetyenzisiweyo zetekisi zomntu ukuqeqesha imodeli yokufunda umatshini) zinokuba nomdla ku- Shamir et al. (2014) (umzekelo usebenzisa i-audio) kunye Cheng and Bernstein (2015) . Kwakhona, imodeli yokufundwa komatshini kulezi projekthi ingacelelwa ngeefowuni ezivulekile, apho abaphandi bancintisana nokwenza imodeli yokufunda umatshini kunye nenkqubo enkulu yokuqikelela. Ngokomzekelo, iqela leGalaxy Zoo laqhuba ucingo oluvulekileyo kwaye lafumana indlela entsha eyaye yavela Banerji et al. (2010) ; ubone Dieleman, Willett, and Dambre (2015) ngeenkcukacha.

• Vula iifowuni (icandelo 5.3)

Vula iifowuni azintsha. Enyanisweni, enye yeefowuni ezivulekileyo ziyaziwayo zibuyela emva ngo-1714 xa iPalamente yaseBrithani idala iRhafu ye-Longitude kumntu nabani na onokuphuhlisa indlela yokujonga ubude beenqanawa elwandle. Ingxaki yayigxininisa ezininzi zezona zinzulu zentsuku, kuquka u-Isaac Newton, kunye nesisombululo esiphumeleleyo ekugqibeleni sathunyelwa nguJohn Harrison, umshicileli ovela kwiindawo ezisemaphandleni oye wafikelela kwingxaki eyahlukileyo kwizenzululwazi ezazijolise kwisisombululo esingaba nesisombululo ; ngolwazi olungakumbi, khangela Sobel (1996) . Njengoko lo mzekelo ubonisa, esinye isizathu sokuba iifowuni ezivulekileyo zicatshangelwe ukuba zisebenze kakuhle kukuba zibonelela abantu abanemibono kunye nezakhono ezahlukeneyo (Boudreau and Lakhani 2013) . Bona i- Hong and Page (2004) kunye ne- Page (2008) ngokubanzi malunga nexabiso lokungafani kwiinkombululo.

Iimeko nganye zeefowuni ezivulekileyo kwisahluko zidinga inkcazelo engakumbi malunga nokuba kutheni kulolu hlobo. Okokuqala, enye indlela endiyichazamisayo phakathi kokubala komntu kunye neeprojekti zeefowuni ezivulekileyo kukuba ingaba umlinganiselo ungumlinganiselo wezisombululo (ukubala komntu) okanye isisombululo esiphezulu (ukuvula ifowuni). Umvuzo we-Netflix unzima kakhulu kule nkcazo kuba isisombululo esona siphumo siphezulu sibe sisisombululo esincomekayo sesisombululo ngasinye, indlela ebizwa ngokuba nesisombululo sesisombululo (Bell, Koren, and Volinsky 2010; Feuerverger, He, and Khatri 2012) . Ukususela kwimbono yeNetflix, nangona kunjalo, konke okufuneka bayenze kwakukhethwa isisombululo esihle. Ukufumana okungakumbi kwi-Netflix Prize, bona Bennett and Lanning (2007) , Thompson (2008) , Bell, Koren, and Volinsky (2010) , kunye Feuerverger, He, and Khatri (2012) .

Okwesibini, ngezinye iinkcazo zokubalwa komntu (umz., Ahn (2005) ), iFoldit kufuneka ithathelwe njengeprojekthi yokuqulunqwa komntu. Nangona kunjalo, ndikhetha ukwenza uluhlu oluvulekileyo kuba lufuna izakhono ezizodwa (nangona kungenjalo ukuqeqeshwa okukhethekileyo) kwaye kuthatha isisombululo esihle kunokuba kusetyenziswe isicwangciso sokudibanisa-sicelo. Ukufumana okungakumbi kwiFoldit ubone, Cooper et al. (2010) , Khatib et al. (2011) , kunye Andersen et al. (2012) ; Inkcazo yeFoldit ibonisa inkcazo e- Bohannon (2009) , Hand (2010) , kunye no- Nielsen (2012) .

Ekugqibeleni, omnye unokuthi uMtshato-ku-Patent ngumzekelo wokuqokelelwa kwedatha. Ndingakhetha ukulufaka njengefowuni evulekileyo kuba unesakhiwo esinjengomncintiswano kunye neminikelo eyona mveliso isetyenzisiweyo kuphela, ngelixa ukuhanjiswa kwedatha ekwabiweyo, ingcamango yemigangatho emihle neyobubi ayicacile. Ngolunye ulwazi kwi-Peer-to-Patent, jonga Noveck (2006) , Ledford (2007) , Noveck (2009) , no- Bestor and Hamp (2010) .

Ngokusebenzisa iifowuni ezivulekileyo kuphando loluntu, iziphumo zifana nezo Glaeser et al. (2016) , zichazwe kwisahluko 10 Mayer-Schönberger and Cukier (2013) apho iSixeko saseNew York sakwazi ukusebenzisa ukulandelelanisa kwangaphambili ukuvelisa iindleko ezinkulu kwimveliso yabahloli bezindlu. KwiSixeko saseNew York, le mizekelo yokuqulunqa yakhiwe ngabasebenzi besixeko, kodwa kwezinye iimeko, umntu unokucinga ukuba angadalwa okanye aphuculwe ngeefowuni ezivulekile (umzekelo, Glaeser et al. (2016) ). Nangona kunjalo, enye inkxalabo enkulu malunga neendlela zokulandela ezisetyenziselwa ukwabiwa kwezibonelelo kukuba le mizekelo inokukwazi ukuqinisa iziganeko ezikhoyo. Abaphandi abaninzi sele bebazi "imfucumfucu, udoti ngaphandle," kunye neendlela Barocas and Selbst (2016) " Barocas and Selbst (2016) ." Bona i- Barocas and Selbst (2016) kunye no- O'Neil (2016) ngaphezulu kweengozi zeemodeli ezilandelwayo ngedatha yokuqeqesha.

Enye ingxaki enokuthi ithintele oorhulumente ukuba basebenzise imincintiswano evulekile kukuba le nto idinga ukukhululwa kwedatha, oku kungakhokelela ekuphuculeni ubumfihlo. Ngolunye ulwazi malunga nokukhutshwa kolwangasese kunye nedatha kwiifowuni ezivulekileyo, khangela Narayanan, Huey, and Felten (2016) kunye nengxoxo kwisiqendu 6.

Ngolunye ulwazi malunga nokungafani nokufana phakathi kokuqikelela kunye nenkcazo, bona Breiman (2001) , Shmueli (2010) , Watts (2014) , kunye Kleinberg et al. (2015) . Ukufumana okungakumbi malunga nendima yokucetyiswa kwiphando loluntu, bona u- Athey (2017) , Cederman and Weidmann (2017) , Hofman, Sharma, and Watts (2017) , ( ??? ) , kunye Yarkoni and Westfall (2017) .

Ukuhlaziywa kweeprojekthi zeefowuni ezivulekile kwi-biology, kuquka ukucebisa iingcebiso, bona Saez-Rodriguez et al. (2016) .

• Ukuhanjiswa kwedatha yedatha (icandelo 5.4)

Inkcazelo yam eBird ibonisa iinkcazo Bhattacharjee (2005) , Robbins (2013) , kunye Sullivan et al. (2014) . Ukufumana okungakumbi indlela abaphandi abasebenzisa ngayo imizekelo yokuhlaziya i-eBird data bona Fink et al. (2010) kunye Hurlbert and Liang (2012) . Ukufumana okungakumbi malunga nokuqikelela ubuchule bebathathi-nxaxheba be-eBird, bona Kelling, Johnston, et al. (2015) . Ukufumana okungakumbi kwimbali yesayensi yoluntu kwi-ornithology, khangela Greenwood (2007) .

Ukufumana okungaphezulu kwiProjekthi yeMbali yeeMalawi, bona Watkins and Swidler (2009) kunye Kaler, Watkins, and Angotti (2015) . Ukufumana okungakumbi kwiprojekthi ehambelana nayo eMzantsi Afrika, khangela i- Angotti and Sennott (2015) . Ukufumana imizekelo engakumbi yophando usebenzisa idatha evela kwiProjekthi yeMbali yaseMalawi yabona Kaler (2004) kunye no- Angotti et al. (2014) .

• Ukuyila kwakho (icandelo 5.5)

Indlela yam yokunikezela ngcebiso yokuyila yayingenangqondo, ngokusekelwe kwimimiselo yeeprojekthi ezihlangeneyo eziphumeleleyo nezingaphumeleli endandizivile ngazo. Kuye kwaba nomjelo wophando ukuzama ukusebenzisa iingcamango zengqondo jikelele zentlalo ekudaleni uluntu oluxhomekeke kwi-intanethi efanelekileyo ukuyila iiprojekthi zentsebenziswano, sibone, u- Kraut et al. (2012) .

Ngokumalunga nabachaphazelekayo abathathi-nxaxheba, ngokwenene kunzima ukuqonda ukuba kutheni abantu bathatha inxaxheba kwiiprojekthi zentsebenziswano eninzi (Cooper et al. 2010; Nov, Arazy, and Anderson 2011; Tuite et al. 2011; Raddick et al. 2013; Preist, Massung, and Coyle 2014) . Ukuba uceba ukukhuthaza abathathi-nxaxheba ngenkokhelo kwimakethe yomsebenzi we-microtask (umzekelo, i-Amazon Mechanical Turk), Kittur et al. (2013) unikeza iingcebiso.

Ngokubhekiselele ekunikeleni amandla okumangalisa, ngeminye imizekelo yezinto ezingalindelekanga ezivela kwiiprojekthi ze-Zooiverse, khangela i Marshall, Lintott, and Fletcher (2015) .

Ngokumalunga nokuziphatha, ezinye iintetho eziqhelekileyo kwimicimbi echaphazelekayo Gilbert (2015) , Salehi et al. (2015) , Schmidt (2013) , Williamson (2016) , Resnik, Elliott, and Miller (2015) , kunye Zittrain (2008) . Imicimbi enxulumene ngqo nemiba esemthethweni kunye nabasebenzi besihlwele, bona Felstiner (2011) . O'Connor (2013) uthetha imibuzo malunga nokunyanzeliswa kokuziphatha kwenkqubo yophando xa iindima zabaphandi kunye nabathathi-nxaxheba behlanya. Imiba enxulumene nokwabelana ngolwazi ngelixa ukhusela abachaphazelekayo kwiiprojekthi zenzululwazi zenzululwazi, bona Bowser et al. (2014) . Bobabini Purdam (2014) kunye no- Windt and Humphreys (2016) banengxoxo malunga nemiba yokuziphatha ekuhanjisweni kwedatha. Ekugqibeleni, ezininzi iiprojekthi ziyavuma iimpepha kodwa zinganikezeli ngetyala kubabambi-nxaxheba. KuFoldit, abadlali badlaliswe njengombhali (Cooper et al. 2010; Khatib et al. 2011) . Kwezinye iprojekthi zefowuni ezivulekileyo, umxhasi ophumelelayo unokubhala rhoqo iphepha elichaza izisombululo zabo (umzekelo, Bell, Koren, and Volinsky (2010) kunye Dieleman, Willett, and Dambre (2015) ).