Yintoni oza kufunda ngokulandelayo

• Intshayelelo (icandelo 3.1)

Ininzi yezihloko kule sahluko ziye zavakaliswa kwiidilesi zongameli zangoku kwi-American Association of Public Opinion Research (AAPOR), njengalezo Dillman (2002) , Newport (2011) , Santos (2014) , kunye ne- Link (2015) .

Ngolunye ulwahlulo phakathi kophando lophando kunye nodliwano-ndlebe olunzulu, khangela Small (2009) . Ukudibanisa noononophelo olunzulu ngongqongqo yintsapho yeendlela ezibizwa ngokuba yi-ethnography. Kuphando lwe-ethnographic, abaphandi bachitha ixesha elininzi kunye nabathathi-nxaxheba kwimvelo yabo yendalo. Ngolunye ulwahlulo phakathi kwe-ethnography kunye nodliwano-ndlebe olunzulu, jonga Jerolmack and Khan (2014) . Ukufumana okungakumbi kwi-digital ethnographie, khangela i- Pink et al. (2015) .

Inkcazo yam yembali yophando lophando imfutshane kakhulu ukuba ifake ezininzi zezinto ezibangel 'umdla eziye zenzeka. Ukufumana imvelaphi yembali, bona Smith (1976) , Converse (1987) , kunye no- Igo (2008) . Ukufumana okungakumbi malunga nembono yesithathu yophando lophando, bona Groves (2011) kunye Dillman, Smyth, and Christian (2008) (ekwahlula iifayile ezintathu ngokungafaniyo).

Groves and Kahn (1979) banikela ithuba lokutshintsha ukusuka kwiphondo lokuqala ukuya kweyesibini kwiphando lophando ngokwenza inkcazo enzulu ngokuthe ngqwabelana phakathi kobuso kunye novavanyo lwefoni. ( ??? ) jonga emva kwindlela yophuhliso lwembali lweendlela zokuthayibha ze-dial-dialing.

Ngakumbi ukuba uphando olwenziwe ngophando olutshintsho kwixesha elidlulileyo ekuphenduleni utshintsho kuluntu, jonga Tourangeau (2004) , ( ??? ) , kunye Couper (2011) .

• Ukubuza ngokubhekiselele ekuqwalaseleni (icandelo 3.2)

Amandla kunye nobuthathaka bokubuza kunye nokuqwalasela baye baxoxwa ngabaphathi beengqondo (umzekelo, Baumeister, Vohs, and Funder (2007) ) kunye nabahlali (umzekelo, Jerolmack and Khan (2014) , Maynard (2014) , i- Cerulo (2014) ; Vaisey (2014) ; Jerolmack and Khan (2014) ] Umahluko phakathi kokubuza Jerolmack and Khan (2014) kwimeko yezoqoqosho, apho abaphandi bathetha malunga nokuchazwa kwezinto ezichaziweyo. Umzekelo, umphandi angabuza abaphendulayo ukuba ngaba bakhetha ukutya ice cream okanye ukuya kwindawo yokuzivocavoca (ezikhethiweyo ezikhethiweyo), okanye unokubona indlela abantu abadla ngayo i-ayisikrimu kwaye badla kwiindawo zokuzivocavoca (ezikhethiweyo ezikhethiweyo). Kukho ukungathandabuzi ngokukrakra malunga neentlobo ezithile zeenkcukacha ezikhethiweyo kwizoqoqosho njengoko kuchazwe Hausman (2012) .

Umxholo oyintloko kulezi mpikiswano kukuba ukuziphatha okubikiwe akusoloko kuchanekile. Kodwa, njengoko kuchaziwe kwisahluko 2, imithombo ekulu yolwazi ingenakho ichanekile, ayinakuqokelelwa kwisampuli yenzalo, kwaye ayinakufikeleleka kubaphandi. Ngaloo ndlela, ndicinga ukuba, kwezinye iimeko, ukuziphatha okubikiwe kunokuba luncedo. Ngaphezulu, umxholo wesibini oyintloko kulezi mpikiswano kukuba iingxelo malunga neemvakalelo, ulwazi, ulindelo kunye nezimvo azihlali zichanekile. Kodwa, ukuba ulwazi malunga nala mazwe angaphakathi luyimfuneko ngabaphandi-nokuba bancedise ukuchaza indlela ethile yokuziphatha okanye njengoko into iya kuchazwa-ke ukubuza ukuba kulungile. Ewe, ukufunda ngeendawo zangaphakathi ngokubuza imibuzo kungabangela ingxaki kuba ngamanye amaxesha abaphenduli ngokwabo abazi ngeendawo zabo zangaphakathi (Nisbett and Wilson 1977) .

• Iphutha lophando lonke (icandelo 3.3)

Isahluko 1 se- Groves (2004) senza umsebenzi oqaqambileyo ukuvumelanisa isigama esithile esingavumelaniyo esetyenziswa ngabaphandi abaphandi ukuba bachaze isakhelo sophuhliso lwesebe. Ukuba unyango lobungakanani besikhokelo kweso sikhokelo Groves et al. (2009) , bona Groves et al. (2009) , kunye neengxelo zembali, bona Groves and Lyberg (2010) .

Iingcamango zokuphutha iziphoso kwizinto ezikhethiweyo kunye nokuhlukana nazo ziza ekufundeni komatshini; ubone, umzekelo, icandelo 7.3 Hastie, Tibshirani, and Friedman (2009) . Oku kuvame ukukhokelela abaphandi ukuba bakhulume nge-trade-off "ye-bias-variance".

Ngokommeli, isingeniso esiphezulu kwimibandela yokungabi nantoni kunye nokungabi naluphiko lwengxelo yeBhunga leSizwe loPhando ngeNkcazo kwiNzululwazi yezeNzululwazi ngeNtlalo: I-Agenda yoPhando (2013) . Olunye uhlalutyo oluluncedo lubonelelwa Groves (2006) . Kwakhona, yonke imiba ekhethekileyo ye- Journal of Official Statistics , i- Opinion Public u-Quarterly , kunye ne- Annals yase-American Academy yezobupolitika nezoNzululwazi ziye zapapashwa ngesihloko sokungaphenduli. Ekugqibeleni, kukho ngokwenene iindlela ezininzi zokubala izinga lokuphendula; Ezi ndlela zichazwe ngokucacileyo kwingxelo yi-American Association of Opinion Reseakers (AAPOR) ( ??? ) .

Ngolunye ulwazi kwi-poll ye-1936 Literary Digest , jonga Bryson (1976) , Squire (1988) , Cahalan (1989) , kunye Lusinchi (2012) . Enye ingxoxo ngale poll njengomzekelo wesilumkiso malunga nokuqokelela ulwazi lwe Gayo-Avello (2011) , bona Gayo-Avello (2011) . Ngomnyaka we-1936, uGeorge Gallup wasebenzisa uhlobo oluthile olunzulu lweesampulu kwaye wakwazi ukuvelisa ukuqikelelwa okuchanekileyo kunye nesampuli encinane. Ukuphumelela kweGallup kwi- Literary Digest yinto ebaluleke kakhulu ekuphuhliseni uphando lophando njengoko kuchazwe kwisiqendu 3 se-@ converse_survey_1987; isahluko 4 se- Ohmer (2006) ; kunye nesahluko 3 se @ igo_averaged_2008.

Ngokwemilinganiselo, umthombo wokuqala wokuyila imibuzo i- Bradburn, Sudman, and Wansink (2004) . Ukufumana unyango oluphambili, jonga u- Schuman and Presser (1996) , ojoliswe ngokukodwa kwimibandela Saris and Gallhofer (2014) , oqhelekileyo ngokubanzi. Indlela eyahlukileyo yokulinganisa ithathwa kwi-psychometrics, njengoko ichazwe kwi ( ??? ) . Oluthe xaxa malunga nokwenza kwangaphambili lufumaneka kwiC Presser and Blair (1994) , Presser et al. (2004) , kunye nesahluko 8 se- Groves et al. (2009) . Ukufumana okungakumbi kwiimvavanyo zophando, khangela Mutz (2011) .

Ngokweendleko, udidi lwe-classic, ubude bexesha lokubaluleka kwe-trade-off phakathi kweendleko zophando kunye neephenonongo zophando Groves (2004) .

• Ngubani oza kucela (icandelo 3.4)

Särndal, Swensson, and Wretman (2003) kunye Särndal, Swensson, and Wretman (2003) Lohr (2009) (ukuqala Särndal, Swensson, and Wretman (2003) ) kunye Särndal, Swensson, and Wretman (2003) (ngaphezulu ngakumbi). Inkqubo yeklasi yokwenza ubude Särndal and Lundström (2005) -post kunye neendlela ezihambelanayo Särndal and Lundström (2005) . Kwimimiselo ethile yobudala bedijithali, abaphandi bayazi ngokuthe ngqo malunga nee-nonrespondents, ezazingenakudla kwangaphambili kwixesha elidlulileyo. Iinkqubo ezahlukeneyo zokungatshintshi ngokungafaniyo ziyakwenzeka xa abaphandi banolwazi malunga nama-nonrespondents, njengoko kuchazwe Kalton and Flores-Cervantes (2003) kunye Smith (2011) .

Uphononongo lwe-Xbox W. Wang et al. (2015) isebenzisa ubuchule obubizwa ngokuba yi-multilevel regress (post "stratification") ("UMnu P.") ovumela abaphandi ukuba baqikelele iqela kuthetha ukuba ngaba kukho ezininzi, amaqela amaninzi. Nangona kukho ingxoxo malunga nomgangatho woqikelelo kule nkqubo, kubonakala ngathi yindawo ethembisayo yokuhlola. Inkqubo yaqala ukusetyenziswa Park, Gelman, and Bafumi (2004) , kwaye kubekho ukusetyenziswa kunye neengxoxo (Gelman 2007; Lax and Phillips 2009; Pacheco 2011; Buttice and Highton 2013; Toshkov 2015) . Ukufumana okungakumbi ngokuqhagamshelana phakathi kwamanani kunye neemilinganiselo zeqela, bona Gelman (2007) .

Ngezinye iindlela zokuhlola ubunzima bewebhu, bona Schonlau et al. (2009) , Bethlehem (2010) , kunye Valliant and Dever (2011) . Iipaneli ze-Intanethi zingasebenzisa mhlawumbi isampulu okanye isampula engenakwenzeka. Ukufumana ezinye kwiipaneli ze-intanethi, khangela Callegaro et al. (2014) .

Ngamanye amaxesha, abaphandi baye bafumanisa ukuba iisampuli ezingenakwenzeka ukuba zivelise ukulinganiswa komgangatho ofanayo (Ansolabehere and Schaffner 2014) , kodwa ezinye iintlekiso zifumene ukuba iisampula ezingenakwenzekayo zenza okubi ngakumbi (Malhotra and Krosnick 2007; Yeager et al. 2011) . Esinye isizathu esenza ukuba le mihluko ingekhoyo yokuba iisampuli ezingenakwenzeka ziphuculwe ngokuhamba kwesikhathi. Ukuba nembono engathembekiyo yeendlela ezingenakunokwenzeka zokutyelela i-AAPOR Task Force kwi-Non-Possibility Sampling (Baker et al. 2013) , kwaye ndiyakhuthaza nokufunda i-commentary elandela ingxelo yesishwankathelo.

• Indlela yokuzibuza (icandelo 3.5)

Conrad and Schober (2008) ngumqulu ohleliwe obizwa ngokuba yi- Invisioning Survey Intatheli-ngxowa-mali yexesha elizayo , kwaye unikezela ngeembono ezahlukeneyo malunga nexesha elizayo lokubuza imibuzo. Couper (2011) idibanisa izihloko ezifanayo, kunye Schober et al. (2015) unikeza umzekelo omhle wendlela iindlela zokuqokelela kwedatha ezilungiselelwe kwisitya esitsha zingabangela idatha ephezulu. Schober and Conrad (2015) inikeza ingxabano epheleleyo malunga nokuqhubeka nokulungiswa kwenkqubo yophando lophando ukufanisa utshintsho kuluntu.

Tourangeau and Yan (2007) imiba yokuphononongwa kwintlalo yoluntu efuna ukukhathazeka kwimibuzo ebucayi, kunye Lind et al. (2013) inikeza izizathu ezithile zokuba kutheni abantu badalule ulwazi oluninzi olubukhali kwi-intanethi. Ukufumana okungakumbi malunga nendima yolwazi-ndlebe nabantu ekunyuseni izinga lokuthatha inxaxheba kwiingxelo, khangela Maynard and Schaeffer (1997) , Maynard, Freese, and Schaeffer (2010) , Conrad et al. (2013) , kunye Schaeffer et al. (2013) . Ukufumana okungakumbi kwimilinganiselo yokudibanisa, jonga Dillman, Smyth, and Christian (2014) .

Stone et al. (2007) unikezela unyango lobungakanani bemihla yokuhlolwa kwesikhashana kunye neendlela ezihambelanayo.

Ukuze uthole ingcebiso engakumbi ekwenzeni uphenyo amava amnandi kunye nexabisekileyo kubathathi-nxaxheba, bonani umsebenzi kwiNkqubo yokuCwangciswa kweNdlela (Dillman, Smyth, and Christian 2014) . Ngomnye umzekelo othakazelisayo wokusebenzisa iifayile ze-Facebook zenzululwazi zenzululwazi yenzululwazi, bona Bail (2015) .

• Uphando olunxulumene nemithombo yolwazi emikhulu (icandelo 3.6)

Judson (2007) uchaza inkqubo yokudibanisa uphando kunye nedatha yolawulo njengengcaciso "yokuhlanganiswa kolwazi" kwaye ixoxa ngezinye iingenelo zendlela, kunye nokunikela imizekelo.

Ngokumalunga nokubuza okucebileyo, kukho ezininzi iinzame zangaphambili zokuqinisekisa ukuvota. Ukuze uphononongo lwaloo ncwadi, khangela Belli et al. (1999) , i- Ansolabehere and Hersh (2012) , Hanmer, Banks, and White (2014) , kunye Berent, Krosnick, and Lupia (2016) . Jonga Berent, Krosnick, and Lupia (2016) malunga nembono engathembekanga yeziphumo ezinikezwe kwi- Ansolabehere and Hersh (2012) .

Kubalulekile ukuba uqaphele ukuba nangona u-Ansolabehere noHersh bekhuthazwa ngumgangatho weenkcukacha ezivela kwisiCatalist, ezinye iimvavanyo zabathengisi bezentengiso ziye zincinci. Pasek et al. (2014) ifumene umgangatho ompofu xa idatha evela kwiseshoni ifaniswa kunye nefayile yomthengi kwi-Marketing Systems Group (edibanisa kunye nedatha evela kubaboneleli abathathu: i-Acxiom, Experian, ne-InfoUSA). Okokuthi, ifayile yedatha ayifanelanga iimpendulo zenzululwazi abaphandi abazilindele ukuba zichanekileyo, iifayile zabathengi belahlekile idatha yemininzi yemibuzo, kwaye iprotheksi yedatha ekhoyo ehambelanisiwe kunye nexabiso lokuhlola elithile (ngamanye amagama, alahlekanga Idatha yayisesikweni, kungekhona ngokungahleliyo).

Ukufumana okungakumbi kwi-intanethi yokudibanisa phakathi kovavanyo kunye nedatha yolawulo, khangela Sakshaug and Kreuter (2012) kunye Schnell (2013) . Ngolunye ulwazi malunga nokuqhagamshelaniswa kwerekhodi ngokubanzi, khangela Dunn (1946) kunye Fellegi and Sunter (1969) (ezembali) kunye Larsen and Winkler (2014) (namhlanje). Iindlela ezifanayo ziye zaphuhliswa kwi-computer yesayensi phantsi kwamagama afana nokudityaniswa kwedatha, ukuchongwa kwimeko, ukulingana kwamagama, ukufunyanwa kabili, kunye nokufunyanwa kwerekhodi (Elmagarmid, Ipeirotis, and Verykios 2007) . Kukho iindlela zokugcina ubumfihlo-bucala zokurekhoda ukudibanisa ezingafuneki ukuhanjiswa kolwazi (Schnell 2013) . Abaphandi kwi-Facebook bavelise inkqubo yokuxhamla iirekodi zabo kwiindlela zokuvota (Jones et al. 2013) ; le nxu lumentiwe ukuvavanya uvavanyo endikuxelela ngalo kwisahluko 4 (Bond et al. 2012) . Ukufumana okungakumbi ngokufumana imvume yokuxhunyaniswa kwerekhodi, bona Sakshaug et al. (2012) .

Omnye umzekelo wokudibanisa uphando oluntu ngokubanzi kwiirekhodi zolawulo zikarhulumente zivela kwi-Survey Health and Retirement Survey kunye noLawulo loKhuseleko loLuntu. Ukufumana okungaphezulu kweso sifundo, kuquka ulwazi malunga nenkqubo yemvume, bona u-Olson (1996, 1999) .

Inkqubo yokudibanisa imithombo emininzi yeerekhodi zolawulo kwi-master datafile-inkqubo eyenziwa nguCatalist-iyaqhelekileyo kwii-ofisi zee-statistical zabanye oorhulumente belizwe. Abaphandi ababini baseStatistics eSweden babhala incwadi enzulu ngesihloko (Wallgren and Wallgren 2007) . Ngokomzekelo wale ndlela kwinqanaba elilodwa e-United States (i-Olmstead County, eMinnesota; ikhaya leKliniki yaseMayo), bona Sauver et al. (2011) . Ngezinye iinkcukacha malunga neziphene ezingabonakala kwiirekhodi zolawulo, khangela Groen (2012) .

Enye indlela abaphandi abangasebenzisa ngayo imithombo ebalulekileyo yedatha kwiphando lophando njengengqamaniso yesampuli kubantu abaneempawu ezithile. Ngelishwa, le ndlela inokuphakamisa imibuzo enxulumene nobumfihlo (Beskow, Sandler, and Weinberger 2006) .

Ngokubhekiselele ekukhuliseni ukubuza, le ndlela ayiyinto entsha njengoko ingavela ngathi ndayichaza njani. Unxibelelwano olunzulu kwimimandla emithathu emikhulu kwiinkalo: ukulandelelana kwe-post-stratification (Little 1993) , imputation (Rubin 2004) , kunye nokulinganiselwa kwamancinci (Rao and Molina 2015) . Kwakhona kuhambelana nokusetyenziswa kweenguqu ezichaziweyo kwi-medical research (Pepe 1992) .

Ixabiso kunye nexesha lokuqikelela kwi- Blumenstock, Cadamuro, and On (2015) ibhekisela ngakumbi kwiindleko eziguquguqukileyo-indleko yocwaningo olongezelelweyo-kwaye alubandakanyi iindleko ezizinzileyo ezifana neendleko zokucoca nokucwangcisa idatha yocingo. Ngokubanzi, ukuphakanyiswa kokubuza kuya kuba neendleko eziphezulu kunye neendleko eziguquguqukayo ezifana nezo zixhobo zedijithali (bona isahluko 4). Ngolunye ulwazi malunga nokuhlola Dabalen et al. (2016) kumazwe asakhulayo, khangela Dabalen et al. (2016) .

Ngengcamango malunga nendlela yokwenza ngcono ngokubuza ngokubhetele, ndiyakucebisa ukufunda okungakumbi malunga nokuchithwa kwezinto ezininzi (Rubin 2004) . Kwakhona, ukuba abaphandi baqhubela phambili becela ukunyamekela ngokubaluleka kwamanani, kunokuba babe neendlela ezizimeleyo, ngoko i- King and Lu (2008) kunye Hopkins and King (2010) inokuba luncedo. Ekugqibeleni, ngokubanzi malunga nokufunda komatshini Blumenstock, Cadamuro, and On (2015) , bona James et al. (2013) (ngaphezulu kokuqala) okanye Hastie, Tibshirani, and Friedman (2009) (ngaphezulu ngakumbi).

Enye imeko yokuziphatha ngokumalunga nokubuza ukuba ingasetyenziselwa ukuphazamisa iimpawu ezibuhlungu abantu Kosinski, Stillwell, and Graepel (2013) kwisaveyi njengoko kuchazwe Kosinski, Stillwell, and Graepel (2013) .