Zvaunofanira kuverenga zvinotevera

• Nhanganyaya (chikamu 2.1)

Mhando imwe yekucherechedza iyo isingatauri muchitsauko ichi ndeye ethnography. Kana uchida zvakawanda pamusoro pematenography munzvimbo dze digital, ona Boellstorff et al. (2012) , uye nezvimwe pamusoro pehutanoji mune nzvimbo dzakasiyana-siyana dzedhizha uye dzepanyama, ona Lane (2016) .

• Nhamba huru (chikamu 2.2)

Hapana kubvumirana kumwe chete kwe "dhamato huru," asi tsanangudzo dzakawanda dzinoita sokuti dzinotarisa "3 Vs": izwi, zvinyorwa, uye kukurumidza (semuenzaniso, Japec et al. (2015) ). Ona De Mauro et al. (2015) pakuongorora kwemashoko.

Kuiswa kwangu kwehurumende yehupfumi yedhara muboka rehurukuro yakawanda zvisiri zvisiri izvo, kunyange vamwe vakaitawo nyaya iyi, kusanganisira Legewie (2015) , Connelly et al. (2016) , uye Einav and Levin (2014) . Kune zvakawanda pamusoro pekukosha kwehurumende yehupfumi yedhadharo yekutsvakurudza, ona Card et al. (2010) , Adminstrative Data Taskforce (2012) , uye Grusky, Smeeding, and Snipp (2015) .

Nokuda kwekutsvakurudza kwehutungamiri kubva mukati mehurumende yenhamba yehurumende, zvikurukuru US Census Bureau, ona Jarmin and O'Hara (2016) . Nokuda kwebhuku-kureba kurapwa kwehutori hwekutsvakurudza zvinyorwa ku Statistics Sweden, ona Wallgren and Wallgren (2007) .

Muchitsauko, ndakapfupisa kuenzanisa tsvakurudzo yezvakaitwa seGeneral Social Survey (GSS) ine nhepfenyuro yehupenyu hwemashoko yakadai sa Twitter. Kuti uenzanise zvakajeka uye nekuchenjerera pakati peongororo dzetsika uye nhepfenyuro yehupfumi, ona Schober et al. (2016) .

• Zvinowanzozivikanwa zvemashoko makuru (chikamu 2.3)

Aya maitiro gumi ehurukuro akave akarondedzerwa nenzira dzakasiyana-siyana nenzira dzakasiyana siyana nevanyori vakasiyana. Kunyora kwakakonzera kufunga kwangu panyaya idzi kunosanganisira Lazer et al. (2009) , Groves (2011) , Howison, Wiggins, and Crowston (2011) , boyd and Crawford (2012) , SJ Taylor (2013) , Mayer-Schönberger and Cukier (2013) , Golder and Macy (2014) , Ruths and Pfeffer (2014) , Tufekci (2014) , Sampson and Small (2015) , K. Lewis (2015b) , Lazer (2015) , Horton and Tambe (2015) , Japec et al. (2015) , uye Goldstone and Lupyan (2016) .

Muchitsauko chino chese, ndashandisa izwi remitambo yemagetsi , iyo yandinofunga isingatsigiri. Imwe nzira yakakurumbira yemitambo yemagetsi ndeyezvidimbu zvemadhigiri (Golder and Macy 2014) , asi saHal Abelson, Ken Ledeen, naHarry Lewis (2008) vanotaura, izwi rinonyanya kukodzera pamwe neminwe yezvigadzirwa zve digital . Paunenge uchitsika tsoka, iwe unoziva zviri kuitika uye tsoka dzako hazvikwanisi kuteverwa kwauri pachako. Izvozvisizvo hazvisizvo nokuda kwezviitiko zvako zve digital. Zvechokwadi, iwe uri kusiya maitiro nguva yose yaunenge uine ruzivo rwakanyanya. Uye, kunyange zvazvo maitiro aya asina zita rako pavari, iwo anowanzobatanidzwa zvakare kwauri. Mune mamwe mazwi, ivo vakaita seminwe yeminwe: vasingaoneki uye pachavo vanoziva.

• Guru (chikamu 2.3.1)

Kuti uwane zvakawanda nei zvikuru zvemasitetisiti zvichiita kuti kuongororwa kuongorore zvinetso, ona M. Lin, Lucas, and Shmueli (2013) uye McFarland and McFarland (2015) . Nyaya idzi dzinofanira kutungamirira vatsvakurudzi kuisa pfungwa pane zvinokosha zvinoreva pane kuverenga nhamba.

Kuti uwane zvakawanda pamusoro pekuti Raj Chetty nevamwe vaaishanda navo vakawana sei zvinyorwa zvemitero, ona Mervis (2014) .

Dhaka huru dze dataset dzinogonawo kugadzira zvinetso zvemashonga zvinowanzove zvisingawanikwi nekombiyuta imwe chete. Nokudaro, vanotsvakurudza vanogadzirisa mazita makuru ematafura vanowanzoparadzira basa pamusoro pemakombiyuta mazhinji, imwe nzira dzimwe nguva inonzi inofanana nemapurogiramu . Nokuda kwekutsvaga kumapurogiramu akafanana, kunyanya mutauro unonzi Hadoop, ona Vo and Silvia (2016) .

• Nguva dzose-pane (chikamu 2.3.2)

Paunofunga nguva dzose-pane data, zvakakosha kuongorora kana iwe uri kuenzanisa vanhu chaivo munguva yakareba kana kuti uri kuenzanisa vamwe vari kuchinja boka revanhu; ona nemuenzaniso, Diaz et al. (2016) .

• Nonreactive (chikamu ¿sec: kwete reactive? )

Bhuku rekare pane zviito zvisingabatsiri ndiWebb Webb et al. (1966) . Mienzaniso iri mubhuku iroro kare kare iyo yerigwaro, asi ivo vachiri kujekesa. Kune mienzaniso yevanhu vanochinja mararamiro avo nekuda kwekuvapo kwekucherechedza mashoma, ona Penney (2016) uye Brayne (2014) .

Reactivity inowirirana zvakanyanya kune izvo vatsvakuridzi vanoshevedza zvinoda zviitiko (Orne 1962; Zizzo 2010) uye Hawthorne effect (Adair 1984; Levitt and List 2011) .

• Haikwanisi (chikamu 2.3.4)

Kana uchida zvimwe nezvekubatanidza zvinyorwa, ona Dunn (1946) uye Fellegi and Sunter (1969) (historical) Larsen and Winkler (2014) (nhasi). Nzira dzakadaro dzakagadzirwawo mumashini epakombiyuta pasi pemazita akadai sekuregererwa kwemashoko, chiitiko chekuzivikanwa, zita (Elmagarmid, Ipeirotis, and Verykios 2007) chekucherechedza (Elmagarmid, Ipeirotis, and Verykios 2007) . Kunewo mararamiro ezvokuchengetedza-kuchengetedza nzira dzekunyoresa kuwirirana kusingadi kutumirwa kwemashoko okuzvizivisa pachako (Schnell 2013) . Facebook yakave yakagadzira nzira yekubatanidza zvinyorwa zvekuvhota; izvi zvakaitwa kuti tiongorore kuedza kwandichakuudza pamusoro pechitsauko 4 (Bond et al. 2012; Jones et al. 2013) .

Nokuda kwekuvaka kuvaka, ona chitsauko 3 Shadish, Cook, and Campbell (2001) .

• Haisvikiki (chikamu 2.3.5)

Kana uchida zvakawanda pamusoro peAOL search log debacle, ona Ohm (2010) . Ndinopa mazano pamusoro pekubatana nekambani nehurumende muchitsauko 4 apo ini ndinotsanangura kuongorora. Vakawanda vanyori vakaratidza kunetseka pamusoro pekutsvakurudza kunobva pane zvisingagoni kuwanikwa, ona Huberman (2012) uye boyd and Crawford (2012) .

Imwe nzira yakanaka yokuti vanotsvakurudza kuyunivhesiti kuwana mashoko mukana ndiko kushanda pakambani ive Intern kana kushanyira mutsvakurudzi. Mukuwedzera kugonesa date kuwana, izvi ruchatibatsira nevatsvakurudzi kudzidza zvakawanda nezvekuti mashoko akasikwa, izvo zvinokosha kuongorora.

Mukutaura kwekuwana ruzivo rwehurumende, Mervis (2014) inokurukura kuti Raj Chetty nevamwe vashandi vakagamuchira sei kuwana marekhodi emitero akashandiswa mukutsvakurudza kwavo pamusoro pekugara kwevanhu.

• Kwete-anomiririra (sec: kwete mumiririri)

Nokuda kwezvakaitika munhoroondo ye "kumiririri" semufananidzo, ona Kruskal and Mosteller (1979a) , Kruskal and Mosteller (1979b) , Kruskal and Mosteller (1979c) , uye Kruskal and Mosteller (1980) .

Zvinyorwa zvangu zvebasa reSvondo uye basa reDoll uye Hill rakapfupika. Kuti uwane zvakawanda pamusoro pebasa reChris kuKora, ona Freedman (1991) . Kune zvakawanda pamusoro peBritish Doctors Study kuona Doll et al. (2004) uye Keating (2014) .

Vatsvakurudzi vazhinji vachashamisika kuziva kuti kunyange zvazvo Doll ne Hill zvakagamuchira dambudziko kubva kuchirembakadzi uye kubva kune vanachiremba pasi pemakore makumi matatu nemashanu, ivo nechinangwa havana kushandisa dhesi iyi mukutsvaga kwavo kwekutanga. Sezvavakakakavadzana vachiti: "Sezvo mutsa wemapapu hauwanzoitiki kuvakadzi nevarume vasiri pasi pemakumi matatu, nhamba dzinobatsira hazvikwanisi kuwanikwa mumapoka awa kwemakore anouya. Muchirevo ichi chekutanga, isu takachengetedza kutarisira kwedu varume vane makore makumi matatu nemakumi matatu nepamusoro. " Rothman, Gallacher, and Hatch (2013) , iyo ine chikonzero chinokurudzira" Sei kumiririra kunofanira kudziviswa, "shandisa mhirizhonga yakawanda yehuwandu hwe vachida kugadzira dare risingarevi.

Kusabvumirana nehutano chinhu chinetso chikuru kune vanotsvakurudza nehurumende vanoda kubudisa zvinyorwa pamusoro pevanhu vose. Izvi hazvirevi kunetseka kwekambani, izvo zvinowanzoiswa kune vashandisi vavo. Nokuda kwekuti sei Statistics Netherlands inofunga nyaya yekusabvumirana kwemashoko makuru ebhizinesi, ona Buelens et al. (2014) .

Kune mienzaniso yevanotsvakurudza vachitaura kunetseka pamusoro pevanhu vasiri mumiririri wezvinyorwa zvemashoko makuru, ona boyd and Crawford (2012) , K. Lewis (2015b) , uye Hargittai (2015) .

Nokuda kwekuenzanisa zvakajeka kwezvinangwa zvekutsvaga kwevanhu uye kuongorora kwezvirwere, ona Keiding and Louis (2016) .

Kune zvakawanda pamusoro pekuedza kushandisa Twitter kuita seni-ye-sample generalizations pamusoro pevhoti, kunyanya nyaya kubva mumasarudzo eGermany muna 2009, ona Jungherr (2013) Jungherr (2015) . Kuenderera mberi kune basa Tumasjan et al. (2010) vatsvakurudzi vemunyika yose vakashandisa nzira dzekutsvaga-sekushandisa shanduro yekutsanangurira kusiyanisa pakati pezvakanaka uye zvisina kunaka zvinotaurwa nemapato-kuitira kuti kuwedzere kukwanisa kwepa Twitter kudikanisa maitiro akasiyana-siyana ezvarudzo (Gayo-Avello 2013; Jungherr 2015, chap. 7.) . Ndiyo nzira iyo Huberty (2015) inopfupisa mhinduro dzezviedza izvi kufanotaura matanho:

"Nzira dzose dzinofanirwa kuzivikanwa dzinotarisana nehutano hwevanhu dzakakundikana kana dzichitungamirirwa nezvinodiwa zvekutarisa kutsvaga kwekusarudzwa kwechokwadi. Izvo zvinokundikana zvinoratidzika kuva nekuda kwezvinhu zvakakosha zvehuwandu hwemagariro evanhu, panzvimbo pekugadzirisa maitiro kana maitiro ekugadzirisa. Muchidimbu, vhidhiyo yehupfumi haiti, uye zvichida haichazoiti, inopa shato yakagadzikana, isina hanya, yemumiririri wevadzidzi; uye zviri nyore zvidzidzo zvehuwandu hwemagariro evanhu hazvina dambudziko rakakwana rekugadzirisa matambudziko aya post post. "

Muchitsauko 3, ndicharondedzera shanduro uye kuongororwa mune zvakawanda zvakadzama. Kunyangwe kana deta isingatauriki, pane mamwe mamiriro ezvinhu, inogona kuyerwa kuti ibudise mazano akanaka.

• Kufambisa (chikamu ¿sec: kuchikurira? )

Kushandura kwenjodzi kwakaoma zvikuru kuona kubva kunze. Zvisinei, chirongwa cheLinternLens (chinokurukurwa zvakare muchitsauko 4) chave chichishandiswa kwemakore anopfuura 15 neboka revanotsvakurudza. Nokudaro, vave vakakwanisa kunyora uye kugovera ruzivo pamusoro penzira iyo iyo sangano yakashandura kwenguva yakareba uye kuti izvi zvingaita sei kuongorora (Harper and Konstan 2015) .

Nyanzvi dzakawanda dzakatarisa kuenderera mberi ku Twitter: Liu, Kliman-Silver, and Mislove (2014) uye Tufekci (2014) .

Imwe nzira yekutarisana nehuwandu hwevanhu inokonzera kugadzira mapurisa evashandisi, iyo inobvumira vatsvakurudzi kuti vadzidze vanhu vakafanana nekufamba kwenguva, ona Diaz et al. (2016) .

• Yakanyanyisa kunetseka (chikamu ¿sec: kugadzirisa-kunetseka? )

Ndakatanga kunzwa izwi rokuti "chigadzirisa chinokanganisa" rakashandiswa naJon Kleinberg muhurukuro, asi zvinosuruvarisa handifungi kuti ndeipi kana kuti hurukuro yacho yakapiwa kupi. Nguva yokutanga yandakaona izwi iri mukudhinda raiva Anderson et al. (2015) , iyo inguva inonakidza yekukurukurirana kwekuti kushandiswa kwemagadzirirwo anoshandiswa neiyo nzvimbo dzekufambidzana kunogona kukonzera kukwanisa kwevatsvakurudzi kushandisa dhiyabhorosi kubva kumawebsite awa kuti vadzidze zvevanhu vanofarira. Izvi zvakakonzerwa K. Lewis (2015a) mukupindura Anderson et al. (2014) .

Mukuwedzera kune Facebook, Twitter zvakare inokurudzira vanhu kuti vashandise vatevere zvichienderana nepfungwa yekuvhara triadic; ona Su, Sharma, and Goel (2016) . Saka chiyero chekuvharwa kwetatu mu Twitter ndechekubatanidzwa kwechimwe chimiro chevanhu pakugadzirisa triadic uye dzimwe shanduro yekugadzirisa kukurudzira katatu.

Kune zvakawanda pamusoro pekuita-kunyanya pfungwa yokuti mamwe masayenzi ezvesayenzi ndeye "injini kwete makeras" (kureva,, ivo vanoumba nyika kwete kungotsanangura) -see Mackenzie (2008) .

• Tsvina (chikamu 2.3.9)

Hurumende yehuwandu hwematongerwo enyika inoshevedza dambudziko rekuchenesa nhamba yekudhinda data . De Waal, Puts, and Daas (2014) inorondedzera maitiro ekugadzirisa dhenda ekugadziriswa kwekutsvakurudza ruzivo uye kuongorora kukosha kwavanoshandisa kumakuru makuru ezvinyorwa, uye Puts, Daas, and Waal (2015) inopa mamwe maonero akafanana vamwe vakawanda vanoteerera.

Kuti uone zvakananga nezvehutano bots, ona Ferrara et al. (2016) . Kune mimwe mienzaniso yezvidzidzo zvakatarira pakuwana spam mu Twitter, ona Clark et al. (2016) uye Chu et al. (2012) . Pakupedzisira, Subrahmanian et al. (2016) inotsanangura mhinduro dzeDARPA Twitter Bot Challenge, kubatana kukuru kwakaenzaniswa kuenzanisa nzira dzekuona bots pa Twitter.

• Kunzwa (chikamu 2.3.10)

Ohm (2015) rongororo rutsva kutsvakurudza pamusoro pechirevo chemashoko anozivikanwa uye inopa maitiro akawanda ekuongorora. Izvo zvinhu zvina zvaanotaura ndehukuru hwekukuvadza, mukana wekukuvadza, kuvapo kwehukama hwepachivande, uye kana njodzi inoratidza kukanganisa kukuru.

• Kuverenga zvinhu (chikamu 2.4.1)

Farber pakudzidza mitero muNew York yakabva pane imwe chidzidzo Camerer et al. (1997) iyo yakashandisa zvitatu zvakasiyana-siyana zvepafambi mapepa. Ichi chiitiko chekare chakaona kuti madereji akaita sevari kutora mari: vaishanda zvishomanana pamazuva apo mibairo yavo yakanga yakakwirira.

Mumabasa anotevera, Mambo uye vashandi vake vakaramba vachitsvakurudza kuIndaneti (King, Pan, and Roberts 2014, [@king_how_2016] ) . Kune imwe nzira inobatanidza yekuyera kuongorora kweIndaneti kuChina, ona Bamman, O'Connor, and Smith (2012) . Nokuda kwezviverengero zvinoshandiswa sezvakaitwa muna King, Pan, and Roberts (2013) kuenzanisa manzwiro emamiriyoni gumi nemamiriyoni gumi, ona Hopkins and King (2010) . Kuti uwane zvakawanda pamusoro pechidzidzo chekutariswa, ona James et al. (2013) (zvishoma teknolojia) uye Hastie, Tibshirani, and Friedman (2009) (mamwe maitiro).

• Forecasting uye nowcasting (chikamu 2.4.2)

Forecasting chikamu chikuru chemabhizimisi data science (Mayer-Schönberger and Cukier 2013; Provost and Fawcett 2013) . Imwe nzira yekufungidzira iyo inowanzoitwa nevanotsvakurudza vevanhu ndeyevanhu vanofungidzira; ona, somuenzaniso, Raftery et al. (2012) .

Google Flu Trends yakanga isiri purogiramu yekutanga yekushandisa data yekutsvaga kusvika kuwandu hwehutachiwana hwekuwanda. Ichokwadi, vatsvakurudzi veUnited States (Polgreen et al. 2008; Ginsberg et al. 2009) neSweden (Hulth, Rydevik, and Linde 2009) vakawana kuti mamwe mazwi ekutsvaga (semuenzaniso, "chirwere") akafanotaura kuongorora kwehutano hwevanhu data risati rasunungurwa. Zvadaro, mamwe mimwe mishonga yakawanda yakaedza kushandiswa kwema digital trace data yehutano kuongorora kuonekwa; ona Althouse et al. (2015) kwekuongorora.

Mukuwedzera pakushandisa dhidhiyo yekutsvaga tsanangudzo yekufanotaura nezvehutano hwehutano, pane zvakare yakawanda yebasa rinoshandisa Twitter data kuti ifanotaura zvabuda mumagetsi; kune maonero anoona Gayo-Avello (2011) , Gayo-Avello (2013) , Jungherr (2015) (chitsauko 7), uye Huberty (2015) . Ikozvino kuve kwehuwandu hwehupfumi, hwakadai sehuwandu hwezvigadzirwa zvemuzinda (GDP), inowanowanikwawo mumabhanki makuru, ona Bańbura et al. (2013) . tafura 2.8 inosanganisira mienzaniso mishomanana yezvidzidzo zvinoshandisa imwe nzira yekutsvaga yeramamiri kufanotaura chimwe chiitiko chechiitiko munyika.

Pakupedzisira, Jon Kleinberg uye vashandi pamwe navo (2015) vakataura kuti zvinetso zvekufananidzira zvinowira mumapoka maviri, zvakasiyana-siyana uye kuti masayendisiti ezvesuzhinji vave vachitarisa pane imwe uye vasingateereri mumwe. Fungidzira mumwe muumbi wehurongwa, ini ndichamushevedza kuti Anna, uyo ari kutarisana nemvura uye anofanira kusarudza kana akashandira shaman kuti aite dhanzi kuti awedzere mikana yemvura. Imwe nzira yekuita, ini ndichamushevedza kuti Betty, anofanira kusarudza kana kutora amburera kushanda kuti arege kunyura mumugwagwa. Vose Ana naBetty vanogona kuita chisarudzo chakanaka kana vakanzwisisa mamiriro ekunze, asi vanofanira kuziva zvinhu zvakasiyana. Anna anoda kunzwisisa kana mvura inotamba ichikonzera mvura. Betty, kune rumwe rutivi, haafaniri kunzwisisa chinhu chipi nechipi chinokonzera; iye anongoda chirevo chakanaka. Vatsvakurudzi vezvemagariro evanhu vanowanzotarisa matambudziko akafanana neakatarisana naAna-izvo Kleinberg nevamwe vashandi vanodana "matanho emvura-kufanana" nezvinetso zvematongerwo enyika-nokuti zvinosanganisira mibvunzo yezvakaitika. Mibvunzo yakafanana neyakatarisana naBetty-iyo Kleinberg nevamwe vashandi vanodana "maambura-akafanana" nezvinetso zvematongerwo enyika-zvinogona kuva zvakakoshawo zvakare, asi vakagamuchira zvishoma nezvishoma kubva kune vanotsvakurudza vanhu.

• Kuenzanisa kuongororwa (chikamu 2.4.3)

Magazini PS Political Science yakange iine hurukuro yehurukuro pamusoro pehuwandu hwemashoko, zvinokonzera ruzivo, uye nyanzvi yemitemo, uye Clark and Golder (2015) muchidimbu muchidimbu chimwe nechimwe. Magazini Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences yeUnited States of America yakanga ine hurukuro yehurukuro pamusoro pezvinyorwa uye makuru makuru, uye Shiffrin (2016) inopfupisa mupiro umwe neumwe. Nekudzidzira kwemichina kunosvika kuedza kuongororongedza kuedza kwepanyama mukati memahombekombe makuru e data, ona Jensen et al. (2008) , Sharma, Hofman, and Watts (2015) , uye Sharma, Hofman, and Watts (2016) .

Mukutaura kwekuedza kwepanyama, Dunning (2012) inopa mushonga wekutangira, bhuku-refu nemuenzaniso mizhinji. Nokuda kwekusava nechokwadi kwekuedza kwepanyama, ona Rosenzweig and Wolpin (2000) (economics) kana Sekhon and Titiunik (2012) (sciences rezvematongerwo enyika). Deaton (2010) uye Heckman and Urzúa (2010) vanoti kukanganisa kuongororwa kwepanyama kunogona kutungamirira vatsvakurudzi kuisa pfungwa pakufungidzira zvisingabatsiri zvinokonzera matambudziko; Imbens (2010) anoverenga zvikonzero izvi nemafungiro ane tariro pamusoro pekukosha kwekuedza kwepanyama.

Apo paitsanangura nzira iyo muongorori anogona kuenda kubva pakufungidzira kuitika kwekunyorwa kushanda kwekushumira, ndakanga ndiri kutsanangura nzira inonzi instrumental variables . Imbens and Rubin (2015) , muzvitsauko 23 ne24, vanopa sumo uye vanoshandisa Imbens and Rubin (2015) semuenzaniso. Kuita kwebasa rechiuto kune mabhizimisi dzimwe nguva kunonzi kuwanda kwevheji yea causal effect (CAcE) uye dzimwe nguva inharaunda yepakati yehutano inokonzera (LATE). Sovey and Green (2011) , Angrist and Krueger (2001) , Bollen (2012) vanopa mazano ekushandiswa kwezvinhu zvakasiyana-siyana mune zvematongerwe enyika, ezvehupfumi, uye zvemagariro evanhu, uye Sovey and Green (2011) inopa "kuverenga kwevadzidzi" kuongororwa zvidzidzo achishandiswa nhengo dzakasiyana-siyana.

Icho chinotarisa kuti 1970 mauto lottery akanga asiri, chaizvoizvo zvakanaka randomized; pakanga paine zvishoma zvishoma kubva kune zvakashata (Fienberg 1971) . Berinsky and Chatfield (2015) vanotaura kuti kudengenyeka uku kuduku hakusi kukosha uye kunokurukura kukosha kwekutungamirirwa zvakanaka.

Mukutaurirana, ona Stuart (2010) kuti uongororwe zvakanaka, uye Sekhon (2009) kuti uongorore. Kuti uwane zvakawanda pamusoro pekufananidza semhando yekuchekerera, ona Ho et al. (2007) . Kuwana musikana mumwe chete wakakwana kumunhu mumwe nomumwe kunowanzooma, uye izvi zvinotanga huwandu hwakaoma. Chokutanga, kana mitsanana chaiyo isingawanikwi, vatsvakurudzi vanofanira kusarudza nzira yekuyera kureba pakati pemakamuri maviri uye kana nzvimbo yakatarwa yava pedyo zvakakwana. Chimwe chikamu chakaoma chinokwira kana vatsvakurudzi vanoda kushandisa mitezo yakawanda yega yega yega muboka rekurapa, sezvo izvi zvinogona kutungamirira kune zvakaringana zvakaenzana. Zvose izvi, pamwe chete nevamwe, zvinotsanangurwa zvakadzama muchitsauko 18 Imbens and Rubin (2015) . Onawo Chikamu II che ( ??? ) .

Ona Dehejia and Wahba (1999) kuitira muenzaniso unofananidzwa nawo wakakwanisa kubudisa maonero akafanana neaya kubva kuongororongedzwa kunongororwa. Asi, ona Arceneaux, Gerber, and Green (2006) uye Arceneaux, Gerber, and Green (2010) yemuenzaniso apo nzira dzinoenderana nadzo dzakakundikana kubereka chimiro chekuenzanisa.

Rosenbaum (2015) Hernán and Robins (2016) vanopa mamwe mazano ekuwana kuenzanisa kunobatsira mukati mezvinyorwa zvemashoko makuru.