Zimene muyenera kuwerenga kenako

• Chiyambi (gawo 5.1)

Kuphatikizana kwa misa kumaphatikizapo malingaliro ochokera kwa nzika za sayansi , kuwombera anthu , ndi nzeru zamagulu . Sayansi yamitundu nthawi zambiri imatanthauza "nzika" (mwachitsanzo, osayansi) mwasayansi; kwa zambiri, onani Crain, Cooper, and Dickinson (2014) ndi Bonney et al. (2014) . Kugwiritsa ntchito ndalama zambiri kumatanthawuza kuthana ndi vuto kawirikawiri mkati mwa bungwe ndipo m'malo mwake kumatulutsira kwa gulu; kwa zambiri, onani Howe (2009) . Nzeru zamagulu nthawi zambiri zimatanthauza magulu a anthu omwe amachita pamodzi mwa njira zomwe zimawoneka ngati zanzeru; kwa zambiri, onani Malone and Bernstein (2015) . Nielsen (2012) ndi kulongosola kwautali wautali ku mphamvu ya kugwirizanitsa kwakukulu kwa kafukufuku wa sayansi.

Pali mitundu yambiri yogwirizanitsa zomwe sizigwirizana bwino mwa magawo atatu omwe ndapanga, ndipo ndikuganiza kuti zitatu mwazizi zimayenera kusamalidwa mwapadera chifukwa zingakhale zothandiza pakufufuza kafukufuku. Chitsanzo chimodzi ndi msika wamakono, kumene anthu amagula ndi kugulitsa malonda omwe angathe kuwomboledwa pogwiritsa ntchito zotsatira zomwe zikuchitika padziko lapansi. Kulosera zamisika nthawi zambiri kumagwiritsidwa ntchito ndi makampani ndi maboma kuti awonetsere, ndipo akhala akugwiritsidwa ntchito ndi akatswiri ofufuza zaumoyo kuti adziwitse kusinthika kwa kafukufuku wophunzira mu psychology (Dreber et al. 2015) . Kuti mumve zambiri zokhudza msika, onani Wolfers and Zitzewitz (2004) ndi Arrow et al. (2008) .

Chitsanzo chachiwiri chomwe sichigwirizana ndi dongosolo langa lazinthu ndi PolyMath project, kumene ochita kafukufuku adagwira ntchito pogwiritsa ntchito blogs ndi wikis kutsimikizira masewero atsopano a masamu. Ntchito ya PolyMath ili m'njira zina zofanana ndi Mphoto ya Netflix, koma mu polojekitiyi anthu akugwira ntchito mwakhama pamagulu ena. Kuti mudziwe zambiri pa polojekiti ya PolyMath, onani Gowers and Nielsen (2009) , Cranshaw and Kittur (2011) , Nielsen (2012) , ndi Kloumann et al. (2016) .

Chitsanzo chachitatu chomwe sichigwirizana ndi ndondomeko yanga ya magulu ndikukhala mofulumira monga a Defense Advanced Projects Agency (DARPA) Network Challenge (ie, Red Balloon Challenge). Kuti mudziwe zambiri pazinthu zolimbikitsa nthawiyi onani Pickard et al. (2011) , Tang et al. (2011) , ndi Rutherford et al. (2013) .

• Kuwerenga kwaumunthu (gawo 5.2)

Mawu akuti "kuwerengedwa kwa anthu" amachokera kuntchito yomwe asayansi akupanga, ndipo kumvetsetsa zomwe zikuchitika potsatira kufufuza kumeneku kudzakuthandizani kuti muzitha kusankha mavuto omwe angawathandize. Kwa ntchito zina, makompyuta ali amphamvu kwambiri, ali ndi mphamvu zoposa zomwe ngakhale akatswiri a anthu. Mwachitsanzo, mu chess, makompyuta amatha kumenyana ngakhale agogo abwino kwambiri. Koma-ndipo ichi sichiyamikiridwa bwino kwambiri ndi asayansi asayansi-pazinthu zina, makompyuta alidi oipitsitsa kuposa anthu. Mwa kuyankhula kwina, pakali pano muli bwino kuposa makompyuta ovuta kwambiri pa ntchito zina zokhudzana ndi kukonza mafano, kanema, mauthenga, ndi malemba. Asayansi a pa kompyuta omwe amagwiritsa ntchito ntchito zovuta-zo-makompyuta-zophweka-zaumunthu anazindikira kuti angaphatikizepo anthu pazochita zawo zamakono. Taonani momwe Luis von Ahn (2005) adanenera kufotokozera kwa anthu pamene adayamba kupanga mawu ake m'mawu ake: "Paradigm yogwiritsa ntchito mphamvu yogwiritsa ntchito anthu kuthetsa mavuto omwe makompyuta sangathe kuthetsa." Mawu ambiri, onani Law and Ahn (2011) .

Malinga ndi tanthawuzo loperekedwa mu Ahn (2005) Foldit-yomwe ine ndalongosola mu gawo pa maitanidwe otseguka-ingatengedwe ngati polojekiti ya anthu. Komabe, ndimasankha kugawa maulendo monga maitanidwe apaderalo chifukwa amafunikira luso lapadera (ngakhale kuti silolangizidwe bwino) ndipo zimatenga njira yabwino yothetsera, m'malo mogwiritsa ntchito njira yothandizira.

Mawu akuti "kupatukana-kugwirizanitsa-ntchito" amagwiritsidwa ntchito ndi Wickham (2011) kufotokoza njira yowunikira makompyuta, koma imatengera momwe polojekiti yambiri yopangidwira imagwiritsa ntchito. Kugawanika-kugwirizanitsa-njira yofanana ndi yofanana ndi Map Mapulogalamu opangidwa ku Google; Kuti mudziwe zambiri pa MapReduce, onani Dean and Ghemawat (2004) ndi Dean and Ghemawat (2008) . Kuti mudziwe zambiri pazinthu zina zomangamanga, onani Vo and Silvia (2016) . Chaputala 3 cha Law and Ahn (2011) chimakambirana za polojekiti yomwe ili ndi zovuta zambiri kuphatikizapo zomwe zili m'mutu uno.

Mu mapulani a anthu omwe ndatchulapo m'mutuwu, ophunzira adadziwa zomwe zikuchitika. Ntchito zina, komabe, zimagwira ntchito "zomwe" zikuchitika kale (zofanana ndi eBird) komanso popanda kuzindikira nawo mbali. Mwachitsanzo, onani ESP Game (Ahn and Dabbish 2004) ndi reCAPTCHA (Ahn et al. 2008) . Komabe, ntchito zonsezi zimadzutsa mafunso abwino chifukwa ophunzira sankadziwa momwe deta yawo imagwiritsidwira ntchito (Zittrain 2008; Lung 2012) .

Otsitsiridwa ndi ESP Game, ofufuza ambiri ayesa kupanga "masewera okhala ndi cholinga" (Ahn and Dabbish 2008) (mwachitsanzo, "masewera owerengetsera anthu" (Pe-Than, Goh, and Lee 2015) ) omwe angakhale ankathetsa mavuto ena osiyanasiyana. Zomwe "masewerawa ndi cholinga" ali ofanana ndikuti amayesa kupanga ntchito zomwe zikuphatikizidwa pa chiwerengero cha anthu zosangalatsa. Choncho, pamene ESP Game imagawana zofanana zomwe zimagwirizanitsidwa ndi Galao Zoo, zimasiyanasiyana momwe momwe gulu likukhudzira-zosangalatsa ndi chikhumbo chothandiza sayansi. Kuti mudziwe zambiri pa masewera okhala ndi cholinga, onani Ahn and Dabbish (2008) .

Mafotokozedwe anga a Galaxy Zoo akugwera pa Nielsen (2012) , Adams (2012) , Clery (2011) , ndi Hand (2010) , ndipo ndemanga yanga ya zolinga zofufuza za Galaxy Zoo zinali zosavuta. Kuti mudziwe zambiri zokhudza mbiri ya mlalang'amba mu zakuthambo komanso mmene Zoo Zachilengedwe zimapitilira mwambo umenewu, onani Masters (2012) ndi Marshall, Lintott, and Fletcher (2015) . Kumanga Zoo Zamagulu, ochita kafukufuku anamaliza Goloxy Zoo 2 yomwe inasonkhanitsa anthu oposa 60 miliyoni ovuta kuphatikizapo odzipereka (Masters et al. 2011) . Kuwonjezera apo, iwo adalowa m'mabvuto kunja kwa galaxy morphology, kuphatikizapo kuyang'ana pamwamba pa Mwezi, kufunafuna mapulaneti, ndikulemba zolemba zakale. Pakalipano, ntchito zawo zonse zimasonkhanitsidwa pa webusaiti ya Zooniverse (Cox et al. 2015) . Imodzi mwa mapulojekiti-Snapshot Serengeti-amapereka umboni wakuti mapulojekiti a Galaxy Zoo-mtundu wa mawonekedwe angathenso kuchitidwa kafukufuku wa zachilengedwe (Swanson et al. 2016) .

Kwa ofufuza omwe akukonzekera kugwiritsa ntchito makina opangidwira ntchito (monga Amazon Mechanical Turk) polojekiti ya anthu, Chandler, Paolacci, and Mueller (2013) ndi J. Wang, Ipeirotis, and Provost (2015) amapereka uphungu wabwino pa ntchito yokonza ndi nkhani zina zokhudzana. Porter, Verdery, and Gaddis (2016) amapereka zitsanzo ndi uphungu wokhudzana kwambiri ndi kugwiritsidwa ntchito kwa msika wa ntchito zazing'ono zomwe amachitcha "kuwonjezereka kwa deta." Mzere pakati pa kuwonjezereka kwa deta ndi kusonkhanitsa deta kumakhala kovuta. Kuti mudziwe zambiri pa kusonkhanitsa ndi kugwiritsa ntchito malemba kwa maphunziro oyang'aniridwa kuti alembedwe, onani Grimmer and Stewart (2013) .

Ochita kafukufuku akufunitsitsa kulenga zomwe ndatcha machitidwe a anthu owerengetsera makompyuta (mwachitsanzo, machitidwe omwe amagwiritsa ntchito malemba a anthu kuti aphunzitse makina ophunzirira makina) akhoza kukhala ndi chidwi ndi Shamir et al. (2014) (mwachitsanzo kugwiritsa ntchito audio) ndi Cheng and Bernstein (2015) . Komanso, mafakitale omwe amapanga makinawa angathe kupemphedwa ndi mayitanidwe otseguka, omwe ochita kafukufuku amapikisana nawo kupanga makina ophunzirira makina ndi ntchito yayikulu yowonongeka. Mwachitsanzo, gulu la Galao Zoo linathamanga kwambiri ndipo linapeza njira yatsopano yomwe inafanana ndi yomwe inayamba ku Banerji et al. (2010) ; onani Dieleman, Willett, and Dambre (2015) kuti mudziwe zambiri.

• Tsegulani mafoni (gawo 5.3)

Tsegulani mafoni si atsopano. Ndipotu, imodzi mwa mayitanidwe otchuka kwambiri anafika mu 1714 pamene Nyumba yamalamulo ya Britain inapanga The Longitude Prize kwa aliyense amene angayambe njira yodziwira kutalika kwa ngalawa panyanja. Vutoli linasokoneza ambiri asayansi akuluakulu a masiku, kuphatikizapo Isaac Newton, ndipo yankho lopambana linatumizidwa ndi John Harrison, wojambula mawotchi kuchokera kumidzi omwe adayankhula ndi vuto mosiyana ndi asayansi omwe adayang'ana njira yothetsera vuto la zakuthambo ; Kuti mudziwe zambiri, onani Sobel (1996) . Monga momwe chitsanzo ichi chikusonyezera, chifukwa chimodzi chomwe maofesi otseguka amalingalira kuti azigwira ntchito bwino ndikuti amapereka mwayi kwa anthu omwe ali ndi malingaliro ndi maluso osiyanasiyana (Boudreau and Lakhani 2013) . Onani Hong and Page (2004) ndi Page (2008) kuti mudziwe zambiri pa mtengo wa kusiyana kwa kuthetsa mavuto.

Milandu iliyonse yowunikira pamutuyi imafuna kufotokozera chifukwa chake ili gawoli. Choyamba, njira imodzi yomwe ndimasiyanitsira pakati pa anthu ndi kutsegula mapulojekiti ndiwotheka kuti zotsatira zake ndizoyesa njira zonse (kuwerengera kwa anthu) kapena njira yothetsera (kutsegula). Mphoto ya Netflix imakhala yovuta kwambiri pankhani imeneyi chifukwa njira yabwino kwambiri yothetsera vutoli, ndiyo njira yothetsera vutoli (Bell, Koren, and Volinsky 2010; Feuerverger, He, and Khatri 2012) . Kuchokera kwa Netflix, komabe, zonse zomwe ankayenera kuchita zinali kusankha njira yabwino. Kuti mudziwe zambiri pa mphoto ya Netflix, onani Bennett and Lanning (2007) , Thompson (2008) , Bell, Koren, and Volinsky (2010) , ndi Feuerverger, He, and Khatri (2012) .

Chachiwiri, ndi matanthauzo ena a kuwerengedwa kwa anthu (mwachitsanzo, Ahn (2005) ), Foldit iyenera kuonedwa ngati polojekiti ya anthu. Komabe, ndimasankha kuti ndiyambe kuyitana chifukwa ndikufunikira luso lapadera (ngakhale kuti silopadera maphunziro) ndipo zimatenga njira yabwino kwambiri, osati kugwiritsa ntchito njira yothandizira. Kuti mudziwe zambiri pa Foldit onani, Cooper et al. (2010) , Khatib et al. (2011) , ndi Andersen et al. (2012) ; Ndemanga yanga ya Foldit imabweretsa zofotokozedwa ku Bohannon (2009) , Hand (2010) , ndi Nielsen (2012) .

Pomaliza, wina angatsutse kuti Peer-to-Patent ndi chitsanzo cha kusonkhanitsa deta. Ndikusankha kuti ndiyiike ngati maitanidwe otseguka chifukwa ali ndi makonzedwe a mpikisanowo komanso zopereka zabwino kwambiri zomwe zimagwiritsidwa ntchito, pomwe ndi kusonkhanitsa deta, lingaliro la zabwino ndi zoipa sizipereka bwino. Kuti mudziwe zambiri pa Peer-to-Patent, onani Noveck (2006) , Ledford (2007) , Noveck (2009) , ndi Bestor and Hamp (2010) .

Pogwiritsa ntchito maitanidwe otseguka mufukufuku wamakhalidwe, zotsatira zimakhala zofanana ndi za Glaeser et al. (2016) , akufotokozedwa mu chaputala 10 cha Mayer-Schönberger and Cukier (2013) momwe New York City idagwiritsira ntchito njira zowonongeka pofuna kubweretsa zopindulitsa zazikulu pa zokolola za oyang'anira nyumba. Mu mzinda wa New York, zitsanzo zowonongekazi zinamangidwa ndi ogwira ntchito m'mizinda, koma nthawi zina, wina akhoza kulingalira kuti akhoza kulengedwa kapena kutsegulidwa ndi mayitanidwe otseguka (mwachitsanzo, Glaeser et al. (2016) ). Komabe, chinthu chimodzi chodetsa nkhaŵa ndi zitsanzo zomwe zikugwiritsidwa ntchito popereka chuma ndi chakuti zitsanzozi zitha kulimbikitsa zosokonezeka zomwe zilipo kale. Ofufuza ambiri adziwa kale "zinyalala, zotayidwa kunja," ndipo ndi zitsanzo zowonongeka zomwe zingakhale "zosokoneza, Barocas and Selbst (2016) ." Onani Barocas and Selbst (2016) ndi O'Neil (2016) kuti mudziwe zochuluka pazoopsa za zitsanzo zowonongeka ndi deta yophatikiza maphunziro.

Vuto lina lomwe lingalepheretse maboma kugwiritsa ntchito masewera otseguka ndi kuti izi zimafuna kumasulidwa kwa deta, zomwe zingayambitse kuswa kwachinsinsi. Kuti mudziwe zambiri zokhudza kumasulidwa kwachinsinsi ndi deta pamakalata otseguka, onani Narayanan, Huey, and Felten (2016) ndi zokambirana pa chaputala 6.

Kuti mudziwe zambiri pa kusiyana ndi kufanana pakati pa kuneneratu ndi kufotokoza, onani Breiman (2001) , Shmueli (2010) , Watts (2014) , ndi Kleinberg et al. (2015) . Kuti mudziwe zambiri zokhudza udindo Cederman and Weidmann (2017) , onani Athey (2017) , Cederman and Weidmann (2017) , Hofman, Sharma, and Watts (2017) , ( ??? ) , ndi Yarkoni and Westfall (2017) .

Kuti muwone momwe polojekiti ikuyendera, kuphatikizapo upangidwe wopangidwe, onani Saez-Rodriguez et al. (2016) .

• Kusonkhanitsidwa kwa deta yogawidwa (gawo 5.4)

Ndemanga yanga ya eBird imatchulidwa pa Bhattacharjee (2005) , Robbins (2013) , ndi Sullivan et al. (2014) . Kuti mudziwe zambiri momwe ochita kafukufuku amagwiritsira ntchito zojambula zowerengera kuti awonetsere eBird data onani Fink et al. (2010) ndi Hurlbert and Liang (2012) . Kuti mudziwe zambiri pa kulingalira za ophunzira a eBird, onani Kelling, Johnston, et al. (2015) . Kuti mumve zambiri pa mbiri ya sayansi yadziko lapansi, onani Greenwood (2007) .

Kuti mudziwe zambiri pa Project Journals Project, onani Watkins and Swidler (2009) ndi Kaler, Watkins, and Angotti (2015) . Kuti mudziwe zambiri pa ntchito ina yofanana ku South Africa, onani Angotti and Sennott (2015) . Kuti mupeze zitsanzo zambiri za kafukufuku wogwiritsa ntchito deta kuchokera ku Malawi Journals Project onani Kaler (2004) ndi Angotti et al. (2014) .

• Kupanga nokha (gawo 5.5)

Njira yanga yoperekera malangizowo inali yopindulitsa, pogwiritsa ntchito zitsanzo zopambana komanso zopanda ntchito zogwirizanitsa ntchito zomwe ndamva. Pakhalanso kafukufuku wakuyesera kugwiritsa ntchito malingaliro ambiri okhudza maganizo a anthu kuti athe kupanga mapepala a pa intaneti omwe ali okhudzana ndi mapangidwe a mapulogalamu ambiri ogwirizana, onani Kraut et al. (2012) .

Ponena za ophunzira omwe alimbikitsana, zimakhala zovuta kudziwa momwe anthu amathandizira polojekiti yochuluka (Cooper et al. 2010; Nov, Arazy, and Anderson 2011; Tuite et al. 2011; Raddick et al. 2013; Preist, Massung, and Coyle 2014) . Ngati mukufuna kukakamiza ophunzira ndi malipiro pamsika wogwira ntchito (monga Amazon Mechanical Turk), Kittur et al. (2013) amapereka uphungu.

Ponena za kuchititsa chidwi, kuti zitsanzo zambiri za zosayembekezereka zopezeka kuchokera ku polojekiti ya Zooiverse, onani Marshall, Lintott, and Fletcher (2015) .

Ponena za kukhala ndi makhalidwe abwino, ziganizo zina zabwino zomwe zilipo ndi Gilbert (2015) , Salehi et al. (2015) , Schmidt (2013) , Williamson (2016) , Resnik, Elliott, and Miller (2015) , ndi Zittrain (2008) . Pazinthu zokhudzana ndi malamulo ndi ogwira ntchito, onani Felstiner (2011) . O'Connor (2013) akuyankha mafunso okhudza kayendetsedwe ka kayendedwe ka kafukufuku pamene ntchito za ofufuza ndi ophunzira zikusowa. Pazinthu zokhudzana ndi kugawana deta komanso kuteteza anthu muzinthu zenizeni za sayansi, onani Bowser et al. (2014) . Purdam (2014) ndi Windt and Humphreys (2016) ali ndi zokambirana za nkhani zoyenera kutsatila pa kusonkhanitsa deta. Potsiriza, mapulogalamu ambiri amavomereza zopereka koma sapereka mwayi kwa olemba. Ku Foldit, osewerawo amatchulidwa ngati wolemba (Cooper et al. 2010; Khatib et al. 2011) . Muzinthu zina zowunikira, otsogolera opambana angathe kulemba pepala akufotokoza njira zawo (mwachitsanzo, Bell, Koren, and Volinsky (2010) ndi Dieleman, Willett, and Dambre (2015) ).