4.3 E rua ngā āhuatanga o ngā: taiwhanga-mara, me te tairitenga-mamati

Ngā taiwhanga whakahere mana, ngā mara whakahere talena, me ngā mara mamati ngā mana me te talena i tauine.

mai ngā i roto i te maha ngā āhua rerekē me te rahi. Ko, ahakoa enei rerekētanga, kua kitea kairangahau reira āwhina ki te whakarite i ngā haere te auroa i waenganui i ngā taiwhanga, me ngā mara. Na, Heoi, kia whakarite ano hoki kairangahau ngā haere te auroa i waenganui i ngā tairitenga me ngā mamati. Ka tauturu i tenei wāhi hoahoa rua-ahu mahino koe te pakaritanga me ngā ngoikoretanga o huarahi rerekē, me te whakaaro ngā wāhanga o te whai wāhitanga nui (Figure 4.1).

Whakaahua 4.1: schematic o wāhi hoahoa mō ngā. I roto i te mua, rerekē ngā haere te taha taiwhanga-mara. Na, rerekē hoki ratou i runga i te taha tairitenga-mamati. I roto i toku whakaaro, i te rohe o te rave'a rahi he ngā mara mamati.

I roto i te mua, ko te ara matua e whakaritea kairangahau ngā haere te taha taiwhanga-mara. Te nuinga o ngā i roto i te tikanga ā he ngā taiwhanga te wahi mahi ngā ākonga paetahi mahi ke i roto i te taiwhanga mo nama akoranga. Tenei momo o te whakamātau ngoi ana rangahau i roto i te hinengaro no reira āhei kairangahau ki te waihanga maimoatanga tino motuhake hangaia ki te whakamātau i ariā rawa motuhake e pā ana ki te whanonga pāpori. No te etahi raruraru, Heoi, mana'o te tahi mea he bit ke e pā ana ki te tuhi whakatau kaha e pā ana ki te whanonga tangata i taua iwi rerekē te raveraa i taua mahi rerekē i roto i te taua tautuhinga rerekē. Kua arahina ēnei āwangawanga ki te kaupapa ki ngā mara. ngā mara ngā te hoahoa kaha o ngā mana randomized ki atu rōpū māngai o ngā kaiuru, te raveraa i mahi atu noa, i roto i ngā tautuhinga atu taiao.

Ahakoa whakaaro etahi iwi o te taiwhanga, me te mara ngā rite whakataetae tikanga, he reira pai ki te whakaaro o ratou rite tikanga tautoko ki ngā pakaritanga rerekē me ngoikoretanga. Hei tauira, Correll, Benard, and Paik (2007) e whakamahia ana e rua i te whakamātau taiwhanga me te whakamātau mara i roto i te whakamātau ki te kitea te puna o te "tautea metua vahine." I roto i te Hau Amui no Marite, whiwhi metua vahine iti moni i te wahine pakoko, ara, no te wahine whakatairite ki ngā pūkenga rite mahi i roto i ngā mahi ōrite. He maha whakamārama taea hoki tenei tauira, me tetahi he e kua tītaha kaitukumahi ki whaea. (Faahiahia, te mea te ritenga ki te kia pono mō matua: ahu ratou ki te whiwhi nui atu i urikore tangata rite). Roto i te tikanga ki te aromatawai i rītaha taea ki whaea, rere Correll me hoa e rua ngā: kotahi i roto i te taiwhanga, me tetahi i roto i te mara.

Tuatahi, i roto i te whakamātau taiwhanga korerotia Correll me hoa kaiuru, i undergraduates kāreti, i whakahaere i te kamupene kōrero tīmatanga-ake California-e hāngai ana te rapu mahi mo te tangata ki te arahi i tona tari hokohoko o Te Tai Rāwhiti hou. korerotia ākonga i e hiahia te kamupene ratou awhina i roto i te tukanga utu, a i ui ratou ki te arotake i haamata faahou o te maha kaitono pūmanawa, me te ki te whakawā i te kaitono i runga i te maha o ngā āhuatanga pērā i to ratou maramarama, mahana, me te ngākau nui ki te mahi. I tua atu, i ui i nga ākonga ki te e tūtohu ratou utu i te kaitono me te aha e tūtohu ratou ano he utu tīmata. O ta'ui ki te ākonga, heoi, i āta hangaia te haamata faahou ki kia rite ki te kahore hoki tetahi mea: etahi o nga faahou tohu metua vahine (na roto i te rārangi whai wāhi i roto i te rōpū mātua-kaiako) me kahore i etahi. kitea Correll i iti iho pea ki te tūtohu utu i te metua vahine ākonga, a whakaekea ana ratou raro utu tīmatanga. I tua atu, i roto i te tātaritanga tauanga o rua nga whakataunga, me nga whakaritenga e pā ana-utu, kitea Correll i te nuinga faataa huakore whaea 'i te meka i te tauanga metua vahine i raro i roto i ngā o te mātau me te fafauraa. I roto i te mau parau te tahi atu, tohe Correll e enei huru ko te huarahi i roto i nei e rawakore whaea. Ko te kupu, whakaaetia tenei whakamātau taiwhanga Correll me hoa ki te ine i te pānga causal ka whakarato i tētahi whakamārama taea hoki taua pānga.

O te akoranga, kia kotahi taetuí e pā ana ki te tuhi whakatau e pā ana ki te katoa US mākete mahi e hāngai ana i runga i nga whakatau o te torutoru rau undergraduates nei e kore pea i i te mahi wa tonu, kia anake i utua e te iwi. Na reira, whakahaere hoki Correll me hoa i te whakamātau mara tautoko. pahono te kairangahau ki rau o tatau mahi pānui mā te tuku i roto i nga pukapuka cover rūpahu me faahou. Rite ki nga rauemi e whakaaturia ki te undergraduates, tohu etahi faahou metua vahine, a kihai i etahi. kitea Correll me hoa i iti pea kia huaina ki hoki mō ngā uiuinga i te wahine urikore rite tohu metua vahine. I roto i te mau parau te tahi atu, kaitukumahi tūturu mau faaotiraa tukunga i roto i te tautuhinga tūturu ta nui rite nga undergraduates. I hanga e ratou mau faaotiraa ōrite mō te take ano? Kia aroha mai, e kore matou e mohio ki. kihai i taea e ki te ui i nga kaitukumahi ki te whakawā i te kaitono ranei whakamārama ratou whakatau nga kairangahau.

Tenei rua o ngā heheu te rota e pā ana ki taiwhanga me te mara ngā i roto i te whānui. ngā taiwhanga whakahere kairangahau tata te mana katoa o te taiao i roto i nei e hanga kaiuru whakatau. Na, mo te tauira, i roto i te whakamātautau taiwhanga, i taea e ki te whakarite i korerotia nga faahou katoa i roto i te tautuhinga ata Correll; i roto i te whakamātautau parae, etahi o nga faahou ai kore i ara i tai'o. I tua atu, no te mea e matau ana kaiuru i roto i te tautuhinga taiwhanga e kei te ako ratou, e taea ki te kohikohi raraunga atu e nehenehe e tauturu mahino ratou aha e hanga kaiuru ratou faaotiraa maha kairangahau. Hei tauira, ka ui Correll kaiuru i roto i te whakamātautau taiwhanga ki te whakawā i te kaitono i runga i ngā āhuatanga rerekē. Tenei ahua o te tukanga raraunga taea tokoni ke mahino kairangahau nga tikanga i muri ngā rerekētanga i roto i te pehea hamani kaiuru te haamata faahou.

I te tahi atu te ringa, enei taua āhuatanga tangohia e ahau tika fakamatala'i rite painga e te tahi mau taime whakaaro hoki huakore. Kairangahau e hiahia ngā mara tautohe e taea kaiuru i roto i ngā taiwhanga rawa rerekē rave ina e te kitea tata ratou. Hei tauira, i roto i te taiwhanga kaiuru whakamātau ai kua fifili te whāinga o te rangahau, me te puta ke o ratou whanonga kia rite kore ki te puta tītaha. I tua atu, kairangahau nei hiahia ngā mara kia tautohe e rerekētanga iti i runga i haamata faahou e taea anake e tu i roto i roto i te taiao taiwhanga rawa ma, horomata, a ko te kupu i te whakamātau taiwhanga e ki runga-whakarite i te pānga o te metua vahine i runga i ngā whakataunga utu tūturu. I te pae hopea, e rave rahi kaiwhakahau o ngā mara faahapa ngā taiwhanga kitá i runga i ngā kaiuru tipua: te nuinga ākonga i Western, kuraina, ahumahi, Rich, me nga whenua Democratic (Henrich, Heine, and Norenzayan 2010) . Nga ngā e Correll me hoa (2007) whakaatu i te tirohanga e rua i runga i te auroa taiwhanga-mara. I roto i waenganui i enei tirohanga e rua i reira ko te whānuitanga o ngā whakaaro ranu, tae atu huarahi pērā i mau mai-ākonga kore ki te taiwhanga ranei e haere ki te parae, engari he tonu ngā kaiuru mahi he mahi rerekē.

I tua atu ki te taha taiwhanga-mara i vai e i roto i te mua, te tikanga o te ao mamati e inaianei whai kairangahau i te taha nui tuarua haere e taea ngā rerekē: tairitenga-mamati. Just rite reira he ngā parakore taiwhanga, ngā mara parakore, me te whānuitanga o ngā hybrids i waenganui, i reira he ngā parakore tairitenga, ngā mamati parakore, me te whānuitanga o te hybrids. He uaua ki te whakahere i te whakamāramatanga ōkawa o tenei taha reira, engari he whakamāramatanga mahi whai hua ko e ngā tino mamati he ngā e hanga whakamahi o te hanganga mamati ki te kimi ngā kaiuru, randomize, whakaorangia maimoatanga, ka whanganga putanga. Hei tauira, Restivo me van de Rijt o (2012) ko te ako o barnstars me Wikipedia te whakamātau tino mamati no whakamahia reira pūnaha mamati mo katoa o enei kaupae e wha. Waihoki tino ngā tairitenga he ngā kore e e hanga te whakamahi o te hanganga mamati mo tetahi o enei kaupae e wha. E rave rahi o te ngā matarohia i roto i te hinengaro he ngā tairitenga. I roto i waenganui i enei tirohanga e rua ki reira e wāhanga ngā mamati e whakamahi i te huinga o ngā pūnaha tairitenga me mamati mo nga kaupae e wha.

Arohaehae, ki te whai wāhitanga rere kore e ngā mamati tika online. Ka taea e ngā kairangahau rere ngā wāhanga mamati mā te whakamahi i ngā pūrere mamati i roto i te ao ā-tinana i roto i te tikanga ki te whakaora maimoatanga ine i ngā putanga ranei. Hei tauira, i taea e kairangahau whakamahi waea atamai ki te whakaora maimoatanga pūoko ranei i roto i te taiao hanga ki te ine i ngā putanga. I roto i te meka, rite tatou e kite i muri i roto i tenei pene, kua whakamahia kē kairangahau mana te kāinga mita ki te ine i ngā putanga i roto i ngā e pā ana ki tikanga pāpori, me te kohi pūngao whai wāhi 8.5 miriona o whare (Allcott 2015) . Ka rite ki ngā pūrere mamati riro piki ngātahi ki te oraraa o te iwi, me te riro ngātahi pūoko ki te taiao hanga, ki enei whai wāhitanga rere ngā wāhanga mamati i roto i te ao tinana ka nui ake tino. I roto i te mau parau te tahi atu, e kore e tika ngā ipurangi ngā mamati.

te hanga pūnaha mamati taea hou mō ngā wahi katoa haere te auroa taiwhanga-mara. I roto i ngā taiwhanga parakore, hei tauira, kairangahau taea te whakamahi i ngā pūnaha mamati mō te kaitahi para inenga o te whanonga kaiuru '; kotahi tauira o tenei momo o te ake inenga he taputapu kanohi-aroturuki e whakarato mehua pū, me te tonu o te wāhi mata. Hangaia hoki te ao mamati te taea ki te whakahaere i ngā taiwhanga-rite online. Hei tauira, kua tere whāngai kairangahau Amazon Mechanical Turk (MTurk) ki te kimi kaiuru mō ngā ipurangi (Figure 4.2). MTurk ōrite "kaitukumahi" nei i mahi e hiahia ana ki te kia oti ki "kaimahi" e hiahia ana ki te whakaoti i aua mahi mo te moni. Rerekē mākete mahi tuku iho, Heoi, nga mahi whai wāhi te nuinga o rapu anake i te meneti torutoru ki te whakaoti me te ngā katoa i waenganui i kaituku mahi, me te kaimahi he mariko. No te mea ki te MTurk ka tāwhai i ngā āhuatanga o ngā-te aufauraa i taiwhanga tuku iho iwi whakaoti ngā mahi e kore ratou e mahi mō te kore utu-te reira te fakanatula oreore mo etahi momo o ngā. Tino, kua hanga MTurk te hanganga mō te whakahaere i te poka wai o ngā kaiuru-kimi me te aufauraa i kua riro te iwi-me kairangahau painga o taua hanganga ki pato ki te poka wai e wātea ana i nga wa katoa o ngā kaiuru.

Whakaahua 4.2: Papers whakaputaina te whakamahi i ngā raraunga i Amazon Mechanical Turk (MTurk) (Bohannon 2016) . MTurk me ētahi atu hokohoko mahi online whakahere kairangahau he ara watea ki te kimi kaiuru mō ngā.

ngā Digital hanga ake ara taea mō ngā mara-rite. Ka taea e ngā āpure Digital whakahere raru mana me te tukanga raraunga ki te mahino tikanga taea (rite ngā taiwhanga) me ngā kaiuru atu kanorau te mau faaotiraa tūturu i roto i te taiao māori (rite ngā mara). I tua atu ki tenei huinga o ngā āhuatanga pai o ngā mua, whakahere hoki ngā mara mamati toru wāhitanga i uaua i roto i te tairitenga taiwhanga me mara ngā.

Tuatahi, Tena ia te nuinga taiwhanga me te mara ngā tairitenga whai rau o ngā kaiuru, ka taea e whai ngā mara mamati mirioni o ngā kaiuru. Tenei huringa i roto i te tauine he no te mea e taea e te tahi mau ngā mamati te whakaputa raraunga i kore utu tāupe. Ko, kua hanga i mua kairangahau he hanganga whakamātautau, te whakanui ake i te maha o ngā kaiuru te nuinga e kore e whakanui i te utu. E kore te mea tika i te huringa ine te whakanui ake i te maha o ngā kaiuru i te take o te 100, neke atu rānei, he mea he huringa kounga, no te mea te reira taea kairangahau ki te ako nga mea rerekē i ngā (hei tauira, heterogeneity o ngā pānga maimoatanga) ka rere katoa rerekē whakaaro whakamātautau ( tauira, ngā rōpū nui). Ko te faufaa tenei wāhi, ka hoki mai ahau ki a reira ki te mutunga o te pene, ina whakaherea e ahau tohutohu e pā ana ki te hanga ngā mamati.

Tuarua, Tena ia te nuinga taiwhanga me te mara ngā tairitenga hamani kaiuru rite widget indistinguishable, te whakamahi i maha ngā mara mamati mōhiohio whakamārama e pā ana ki ngā kaiuru i roto i te hoahoa me te tātaritanga wāhanga o te rangahau. Tenei mōhiohio whakamārama, e kiia nei ko ngā mōhiohio mua maimoatanga-, he maha wātea i roto i ngā mamati no te tango ratou wahi i roto i te taiao tino whanganga. Hei tauira, he kairangahau i Facebook kua nui atu pārongo mua maimoatanga-atu i te kairangahau hoahoa he whakamātau taiwhanga paerewa ki undergraduates. Tenei mōhiohio mua maimoatanga-āhei kairangahau ki te neke tua atu rongoā ngā kaiuru widget rite indistinguishable. More āta, ngā mōhiohio mua maimoatanga-āhei whakaaro-taua pai atu whakamātau rite ārai (Higgins, Sävje, and Sekhon 2016) me ngā kimi o ngā kaiuru (Eckles, Kizilcec, and Bakshy 2016) -pea tātaritanga-pērā atu hōhonu rite i whakarite ai o heterogeneity o ngā pānga maimoatanga (Athey and Imbens 2016a) me te whakarerekētanga covariate mo ake pū (Bloniarz et al. 2016) .

A toru, Tena tokomaha taiwhanga tairitenga me te mara ngā whakaorangia maimoatanga me ngā putanga mehua i roto i te nui āhua kōpeke o te wā, etahi ngā mara mamati whai wāhi maimoatanga e taea te tukua i runga i te wā, me te taea hoki te whanganga i te pānga i runga i te wā. Hei tauira, Restivo me van de Rijt o whakamātau e te putanga whanganga ia mo 90 nga ra, a tetahi o nga ngā ka korerotia e ahau ki a koutou e pā ana ki i muri i roto i te pene (Ferraro, Miranda, and Price 2011) aroturuki putanga i runga i te 3 tau i waiwai kahore utu. He raraunga-tino noa enei e toru whai wāhitanga-rahi, ngā mōhiohio mua maimoatanga-, me te maimoatanga roa, me te putanga, ina e rere ngā i runga i runga o nga wa katoa-i runga i inenga pūnaha (kite Chapter 2 mō ake i runga i nga wa katoa-i runga i ngā pūnaha ine).

Ahakoa whakaeke ngā mara mamati maha taea, faaite ano ratou etahi ngoikoretanga ki e rua tairitenga taiwhanga me ngā mara. Hei tauira, e kore e taea te whakamahi ngā ki ako i te mua, a taea anake ratou whakarite i te pānga o maimoatanga e taea te rāwekeweke. Ano, ahakoa e kore whai hua ki te ārahi i ngā kaupapa here ngā, he ahua iti no te pōauautanga pērā i fakafalala taiao, raruraru hanganga ture, me ngā pānga taurite te arata'iraa tangohia e taea ratou whakahere (Banerjee and Duflo 2009; Deaton 2010) . I te pae hopea, ngā mara mamati whakanui nga āwangawanga matatika hanga e ngā mara. Kaiwhakahau o ngā mara tetere ratou kaha ki te wawao topu- a matapōkeretia ki whakataunga tukunga i hanga e te milioni o te iwi. Ēnei āhuatanga whakahere etahi painga pūtaiao, engari ka taea e hoki hanga ratou ngā mara matatika matatini (whakaaro e pā ana ki reira rite kairangahau rongoā iwi rite "kiore taiwhanga" i runga i te tauine nui). I tua atu, i roto i te tua ki raru e taea ki ngā kaiuru, ngā mara mamati, no te mea o ratou unahi, taea hoki te whakaara āwangawanga e pā ana ki te tauwhatinga o te mahi pūnaha pāpori (hei tauira, āwangawanga e pā ana ki te tauwhati pūnaha utu o Wikipedia, ki te hoatu e Restivo me van der Rijt maha rawa barnstars) .