tāpiritanga Historical

Me tetahi kōrero o matatika rangahau ki whakaae e, i roto i te mua, kua mahi kairangahau mea ri'ari'a i roto i te ingoa o te pūtaiao. Ko tētahi o te ri'ari'a tino ko Ako pakewakewa te Tuskegee. I roto i te 1932, kairangahau i te US Ratonga Hauora Tūmatanui (PHS) whakauru e pā ana ki 400 nga tangata pango huaketo ki pakewakewa i roto i te ako ki te aroturuki i te pānga o te mate. i tīkina enei tangata i te rohe a tawhio noa Tuskegee, Alabama. Mai i te tīmatanga i kore-haumanu te ako; I hangaia te reira ki te tuhi noa te aamu o te mate i roto i nga tane pango. Nga kaiuru i tinihanga e pā ana ki te āhua o te ako-ratou i korerotia e ko te reira i te ako o "toto kino" -pea i tapaea ana e ratou maimoatanga teka, me te whai hua, ahakoa paipai pākewakewa ko te mate whakamate. I mua i te ako, i whakawhanakehia maimoatanga haumaru, me te whai hua mō te paipai pākewakewa, engari kaha ka whakaurua nga kairangahau ki te ārai i te kaiuru i whiwhi maimoatanga kē. Hei tauira, i roto i te Tama'i Rahi II o te Ao i te rangahau kapa noaa deferments tauira mo nga tangata katoa i roto i te ako i roto i te tikanga ki te ārai i te maimoatanga nga tangata e kua riro i tomo ratou i nga Forces Armed. tonu kairangahau ki te tinihanga ia kaiuru, me te whakakahore tiaki ratou mo te 40 nga tau. Te ako ko te deathwatch-tau 40.

ka mau te Ako pakewakewa Tuskegee wahi ki te puipuitua o te racism me kore ōritenga tino e he noa i roto i te wahi tonga o te US i te wa. Ko, ki runga i ona hītori-tau 40, whai wāhi te ako pinepine o kairangahau, e rua pango me te ma. Na, i roto i te tua ki kairangahau tika wāhi, tokomaha ake me kua korerotia tetahi o nga pūrongo 15 o te ako whakaputaina i roto i te tuhinga hauora (Heller 1972) . I roto i te pokapū o-1960-e pā ana ki te 30 nga tau i muri i te ako anga-he kaimahi PHS ingoa Robert Buxtun timata aki i roto i te PHS ki te mutunga i te ako, i whakaaro ia morare rutaki. I roto i te whakautu ki Buxtun, i 1969 huihuia te PHS he rōpū ki te mahi i te arotake matatika oti o te ako. Shockingly, faaoti te röpü arotake matatika e kia tonu kairangahau ki kaiponuhia maimoatanga i nga tangata pangia. I roto i nga hui, ara parau tetahi mema o te rōpū: "E kore e whai koe i tetahi atu ako rite tenei; tango painga o reira " (Brandt 1978) . Te röpü ma katoa, i te nuinga hanga ake o kaiwhakaako, i whakatau kia riro etahi ahua o te whakaaetanga mōhio. Ko, i whakarite te röpü nga tangata hē ia ratou o te whakarato whakaaetanga mōhio mo o ratou tau, me te taumata iti o te mātauranga. tūtohutia te röpü, Na, e farii i te kairangahau "whakaae mōhio a Maata" i rangatira hauora rohe. Na, ahakoa i muri i te he arotake matatika ki tonu, tonu te pupuri o te tiaki. Nāwai, ka mau Robert Buxtun te aamu ki te kairīpoata, a i roto i te 1972 i tuhituhi Jean Heller te raupapa o ngā tuhinga niupepa i kitea te ako ki te ao. Ko te muri noa poauau tūmatanui whānui i te mutunga mutu te ako, me te tiaki i patua ki nga tangata nana nei i ora.

Victims o tenei ako ngā kore noa nga tangata 399, engari ano hoki ratou hapu: i te iti rawa 22 wahine, 17 nga tamariki, a 2 mokopuna ki pakewakewa kia kua kirimanahia te mate rite ki te hua o te pupuri o te maimoatanga (Yoon 1997) . I tua atu, tonu te kino i meinga e te ako roa i muri mutu te reira. Te ako-ririraa-heke te whakawhirinaki i African Ameliká i roto i te hapori hauora, he horo i roto i te whakawhirinaki e kia kua arahina African-Ameliká ki te karo tiaki hauora ki te determent o to ratou hauora (Alsan and Wanamaker 2016) . I tua atu, i te kore o te whakawhirinaki i whakaware tautooraa ki te hamani HIV / AIDS i roto i te 1980 me te 90 (Jones 1993, Ch. 14) .

Ahakoa he uaua ki te whakaaro rangahau kia fakalilifu tupu tenei ra, whakaaro ahau i reira e toru nga lēsoni mahu'inga i te Ako pakewakewa Tuskegee mō iwi whakahaere rangahau pāpori i roto i te ao mamati. Tuatahi, fakamanatu reira tatou e reira e te tahi mau rangahau e kore e noa tupu. Tuarua, whakaatu reira tatou e taea rangahau kino e kore e tika kaiuru, engari ano hoki io ​​ratou hapu, me ngā hapori katoa roa i muri kua te rangahau kua oti. I te pae hopea, whakaatu i te reira e taea hanga kairangahau faaotiraa matatika whakamataku. I roto i te meka, whakaaro ahau kia kaha ai te reira i te tahi mau wehi i roto i kairangahau i tenei ra i hanga na nga iwi maha whai wāhi i roto i tenei ako i taua mau faaotiraa ri'ari'a i runga i te taua o te wā wā roa. Na, kāore, Tuskegee he i kore tikanga ahurei; reira i rave rahi atu mau hi'oraa o te rangahau pāpori, me te hauora raruraru i roto i tenei wā (Katz, Capron, and Glass 1972; Emanuel et al. 2008) .

I roto i te 1974, i roto i te whakautu ki te Ako pakewakewa Tuskegee me enei atu rahunga matatika e kairangahau, hanga te US Congress te National Komihana mo te Protection o Kaupapa Human o Biomedical ko Whanonga Rangahau, a tēra i te komiti ki te whakawhanake i ngā aratohu matatika mō te rangahau e whai wāhi mai kaupapa tangata. I muri tau e wha o te whakaminenga i te Belmont Conference Center, hua te rōpū te Report Belmont, he tuhinga pūhihi engari kaha i e kua he pānga nui i runga i rua tautohetohe waitara i roto i tikanga ōmataora me te mahi rā o te rangahau.

e toru ngā wāhanga te Report Belmont. I roto i te tuatahi wāhanga-Boundaries waenganui Practice me Rangahau-te Report Belmont whakatakoto i roto i tona purview. I roto i ngā, tohe te reira hoki te wehewehe i waenganui i te rangahau, e rapu te matauranga generalizable, me mahi, e ngā maimoatanga rā me ngā mahi. I tua atu, tohe te reira e ia faaohipa i te mau parau tumu matatika o te Pūrongo Belmont ki rangahau anake. Kua tohe te reira e tenei rereketanga o te rangahau me te mahi ko te kotahi ara e te Report Belmont he felōgoi ki te rangahau pāpori i roto i te ao mamati (Metcalf and Crawford 2016; boyd 2016) .

takoto nga wahi tuarua, me te tuatoru o te Pūrongo Belmont i te mau parau tumu-whakaute matatika toru hoki Persons; i atawhai hoki; ko te tika-ka whakaahua pēhea te taea te tono teie mau parau tumu i roto i te mahi rangahau. Ko te mau parau tumu i whakaahuatia ahau i roto i te kōrero atu i roto i te pene enei.

whakatakoto te Report Belmont whāinga whānui, engari ehara i te mea he tuhinga e taea te ngāwari te whakamahi ki te tokanga'i mahi ra-ki-ra. Na reira, i hanga te Kawanatanga US he huinga o ngā ture e kua colloquially huaina te Ture Common (he Taitara 45 Code o Rekureihana Federal, Part 46 ratou ingoa mōhiohio, Subparts He - D) (Porter and Koski 2008) . Enei ture whakaahua te tukanga mō te arotake, whakaae, me te tokanga'i rangahau, a ko ratou nga ture e Poari Institutional Arotake (IRBs) e tēra ki uruhi. Ki te mārama i te rerekētanga i waenganui i te Report Belmont me te Ture Common, whakaaro pehea ia e kōrero ana whakaaetanga mōhio: whakaahua ana te Report Belmont nga take taumauri mō te whakaaetanga mōhio me ngā āhuatanga whanui e e tohu whakaae mōhio pono i te Ture Common rārangi hiahiatia te waru me te ono kōwhiringa huānga o te tuhinga whakaaetanga mōhio. Na roto i te ture, e faatere te Ture Common tata katoa rangahau e manako ana pūtea i te Kāwanatanga US. I tua atu, he tokomaha pütahitanga e riro pūtea i te Kāwanatanga US tino tono te Ture Common ki rangahau katoa tupu i taua institution, ahakoa o te puna pūtea. Otiia, e kore e te Ture Common tono aunoa i kamupene e kore e e riro pūtea rangahau i te Kāwanatanga US.

Whakaaro ahau e faatura tata katoa kairangahau nga whāinga whānui o te rangahau matatika rite whakahuatia i roto i te Pūrongo Belmont, engari i reira he whanowhanoā whānui ki te Ture Common me te tukanga o te mahi ki te IRBs (Schrag 2010; Schrag 2011; Hoonaard 2011; Klitzman 2015; King and Sands 2015; Schneider 2015) . Ki te kia mārama, te hunga tino o IRBs kore e ki matatika. Engari, whakapono ratou e kore e te pūnaha o nāianei patu te pauna tika ranei i taea e pai te whakatutuki i ona whāinga i roto i te tahi atu tikanga. Tenei pene, Heoi, ka tango i enei IRBs rite homai. Ki te hiahiatia e koe ki te whai i te ture o te IRB, ka kia whai ia ratou ki a koe. Heoi, e te faaitoito e ahau ki a koutou ki te tango i hoki he huarahi parau tumu-e hāngai ana, ka whakaaro nga matatika o koutou rangahau.

Tenei papamuri rawa poto whakarāpopoto pehea matou tae i te pūnaha ture-hāngai o te arotake IRB i roto i te Hau Amui no Marite. A, no te whakaaro i te Report Belmont me te Ture Common tenei ra, kia mahara tatou e i hanga e ratou i roto i te wā rerekē, ka i-rawa whaitake te-urupare ki nga raruraru o taua wā, i roto i ngā pakaru i roto i te matatika rata i roto i, me te i muri i te Pakanga Tuarua o te Ao (Beauchamp 2011) .

I tua atu ki te mau tautooraa matatika e pūtaiao hauora, me te whanonga ki te waihanga tikanga matatika, i reira i hoki iti a iti pai tautooraa mohiotia e pūtaiao rorohiko. I roto i te meka, ki nga kairangahau tuatahi rere ki te mau tamataraa matatika hanga e te rangahau tau mamati kihai i pūtaiao pāpori; ratou pūtaiao rorohiko, āta kairangahau i roto i te haumarutanga rorohiko. I roto i te 1990 me te 2000 rorohiko kairangahau haumarutanga he maha o rangahau matatika pāhekeheke i whai wāhi nga mea rite te tango i runga i botnets me hacking ki nga mano o rorohiko ki kupuhipa ngoikore whakahaere (Bailey, Dittrich, and Kenneally 2013; Dittrich, Carpenter, and Karir 2015) . I roto i te whakautu ki enei rangahau, te US Kāwanatanga-āta te Tari o Homeland Security-hanga te kōmihana puru-rīpene ki te tuhituhi i te anga matatika ārahi mō te rangahau e whai wāhi mai hangarau mōhiohio me te whakawhitiwhiti (ICT). Nga hua o tenei tautooraa ko te Report Menlo (Dittrich, Kenneally, and others 2011) . Ahakoa kore e rite nga āwangawanga o rorohiko kairangahau haumaru te taua ano kairangahau pāpori, e whakarato ana te Report Menlo toru haapiiraa faufaa no te kairangahau pāpori.

Tuatahi, haapapu te Report Menlo te toru Belmont parau tumu-whakaute mo Persons, atawhai hoki, ko te tika-ka tāpiri te parau tumu tuawha: Te whakaute mō te ture me te Interest Public. whakaahuatia ahau i tenei tumu te wha, me te pehea kia tono te reira ki te rangahau pāpori i roto i te pene matua (Tekiona 6.4.4).

Tuarua, karanga te Report Menlo runga kairangahau ki te neke tua atu i te whakamāramatanga kuiti o "rangahau e whai wāhi mai kaupapa tangata" i te Report Belmont ki te ariā ake whānui o "rangahau ki pūmanawa tangata-tükino." Ko nga whāititanga o te hōkai o te Pūrongo Belmont e pai whakaahua e Encore. Nga IRBs i Princeton ko Georgia Tech kingi e kore ko Encore "rangahau e whai wāhi mai kaupapa tangata," a reira e kore kaupapa ki te arotake i raro i te Ture Common. Heoi, mārama he pūmanawa tangata-tükino Encore; i ona tino tino, pea i taea e Encore hua i roto i te iwi harakore i mauheretia e te kāwanatanga repressive. tikanga He huarahi parau tumu-e hāngai ana e kore e huna kairangahau i muri te kuiti, whakamāramatanga ture o "kaupapa tangata rangahau e whai wāhi mai," ara, ki te tukua e te reira IRBs. Engari, kia tango ratou i te ariā ake whānui o "rangahau ki te tangata-tükino pūmanawa" a kia ngohengohe ratou katoa o ratou ake rangahau ki te tangata-ianei pūmanawa ki te whakaaro matatika.

Tuatoru, karanga te Report Menlo runga kairangahau ki te whakawhānui i te whai pänga e kua whakaaro ka tono te mau parau tumu Belmont. Hei pera me ta oho rangahau i te poi motuhake o te ora ki te tahi mea e te atu pūmau i roto i ngā mahi ra-ki-ra, me te whakawhānui whakaaro matatika tua atu tika kaiuru rangahau motuhake ki te whakauru-kaiuru kore me te taiao te wahi te rangahau e wahi. I roto i te mau parau te tahi atu, e karanga ana te Report Menlo hoki ki kairangahau whakawhānui ratou mara matatika o te tirohanga tua atu tika ratou kaiuru.

E whakarato ana tēnei tāpiritanga kōrero he arotake rawa poto o matatika rangahau i roto i te pūtaiao pāpori me hauora, me te pūtaiao rorohiko. Hoki te maimoatanga roa pukapuka o matatika rangahau i roto i te pūtaiao hauora, kite Emanuel et al. (2008) ranei Beauchamp and Childress (2012) .