ʻO ka mea e heluhelu ai i ka wā aʻe

• Hōʻike (mahele 2.1)

ʻO kekahiʻano nānāʻanaʻaʻole i hoʻokomoʻia i loko o kēia mokuna he moʻokūʻauhau. No nā mea hou aku e pili ana i ka pilikino ma nā wahi kikowaena, e nānā iā Boellstorff et al. (2012) , a no nā mea hou aku e pili ana i nāʻano ethnography ma nā'ōnaehana hoʻoili a me nā kino kūpilikiʻi, e nānā iā Lane (2016) .

• Nuiʻike (kahi 2.2)

ʻAʻole ka manaʻo hoʻohui likeʻole o ka "ʻikepili nui," akā,ʻo ka nui o nā manaʻo e pili ana i ka "3 Vs": keʻano, keʻano, a me ka wiki (eg, Japec et al. (2015) ). E nānā iā De Mauro et al. (2015) no ka loiloi hou i nā manaʻo.

ʻO koʻu komoʻana i nāʻike hoʻolālā aupuni ma kaʻano o kaʻikepili nui he mea kūponoʻole ia, akā ua hana kekahi i kēia hihia,ʻo Legewie (2015) , Connelly et al. (2016) , a Einav and Levin (2014) . No nā mea e pili ana i ka waiwai o nāʻike hoʻomalu o ke aupuni no ka noiʻiʻana, eʻike i Card et al. (2010) , Adminstrative Data Taskforce (2012) , a me Grusky, Smeeding, and Snipp (2015) .

No ka nānāʻana i ka noiʻi hoʻomaluʻana mai loko o ka pūnaewele hōʻike aupuni, kahi pūnaewele HeluheluʻAmelika Hui PūʻIa, eʻike iā Jarmin and O'Hara (2016) . No ka mālama lōʻihi o nā puke hoʻomanaʻo i kaʻike noiʻi ma Statistics Sweden, e nānā iā Wallgren and Wallgren (2007) .

Ma ka mokuna, ua hoʻohālikelike au i kekahi loiloi maʻamau e like me ka Social Social Survey (GSS) me kahi punaeweleʻikepili e like me Twitter. No ka māhele kūʻokoʻa a me ka nānā pono i waena o nā noiʻi a me nāʻike pilikino pūnaewele, e nānā iā Schober et al. (2016) .

• Nāʻike maʻamau o kaʻikepili nui (pauku 2.3)

ʻO kēia mauʻano he 10 o kaʻikepili nui ua ho'ākākaʻia ma nāʻano likeʻole e nā mea kākau likeʻole. ʻO ka kākauʻana i ka hopena o koʻu manaʻo ma kēia mau hihia,ʻo Lazer et al. (2009) , Groves (2011) , Howison, Wiggins, and Crowston (2011) , boyd and Crawford (2012) , SJ Taylor (2013) , Mayer-Schönberger and Cukier (2013) , Golder and Macy (2014) , Ruths and Pfeffer (2014) , Tufekci (2014) , Sampson and Small (2015) , K. Lewis (2015b) , Lazer (2015) , Horton and Tambe (2015) , Japec et al. (2015) , a me Goldstone and Lupyan (2016) .

Ma loko o kēia mokuna, ua hoʻohana au i nā hua'ōlelo maʻamau , ke manaʻo nei auʻaʻole i kūpono. ʻO kekahi kumu kaulana no nā hiʻona liʻiliʻi,ʻo ia nā kapuaʻi hilinaʻi (Golder and Macy 2014) , akā, e like me Hal Abelson, Ken Ledeen, a me Harry Lewis (2008) kuhikuhi aku,ʻo kahi kūpono kūpono paha he mau mīkini lima maʻamau . Ke hanaʻoe i nā wāwae, uaʻikeʻoe i nā mea e hana nei aʻaʻole hiki keʻikeʻia nā paepae iāʻoe iho. ʻAʻole pono kēia no kāu mau laina pilikino. ʻO kaʻoiaʻiʻo, ke waiho neiʻoe i nā hiʻohiʻona i nā manawa a pau i loaʻaʻole ai iāʻoe kaʻikeʻuʻuku. A, no ka meaʻaʻole kēia inoa i kou inoa iā lākou, hiki ke loli pinepineʻia lākou iāʻoe. I nā'ōlelo'ē aʻe, ua like lākou me nā manamana lima:ʻikeʻoleʻia aʻikeʻia.

• Nui (mahele 2.3.1)

No ka mea hou aku no ke kumu o ka hōʻikeʻana o nā hōʻemi nui i nā hōʻike helu helu, e nānā iā M. Lin, Lucas, and Shmueli (2013) a me McFarland and McFarland (2015) . ʻO kēia mau hihia e alakaʻi i nā mea noiʻi e nānā i ka waiwai nui ma muaʻole o ke kūlana helu.

No nā mea hou e pili ana i kaʻikeʻana o Raj Chetty a me nā hoa hana i nā waihonaʻauhau, e nānā iā Mervis (2014) .

Hiki i nā pūnaewele nui ke hana i nā pilikia pilikino iʻoi aku ma mua o ka hiki i nā loiloi hoʻokahi. No laila,ʻo nā mea noiʻi e hana ana i nāʻike ma nā papahana nui e hoʻolaha pinepine i ka hana ma luna o nā kamepiula he nui, kahi hana i kapaʻia he mau papahana likeʻole . No ka hoʻokomoʻana i nā papahana likeʻole, ma kahi'ōlelo i kapaʻiaʻo Hadoop, eʻike iā Vo and Silvia (2016) .

• ʻO ka manawa mau (mahele 2.3.2)

I ka noʻonoʻoʻana i kaʻikepili i nā manawa a pau, he mea nui e noʻonoʻo ināʻoe e hoʻohālikelike ana i nā kānaka likeʻole ma ka manawa a iʻole e hōhālike pahaʻoe i kekahi poʻe hou o ka poʻe; e nānā i kēia lā, Diaz et al. (2016) .

• Nānāʻole (mahele ¿sec: hōʻoleʻole? )

ʻO kahi puke kūikawā ma nā mea hanaʻole e hoʻohanaʻiaʻo Webb et al. (1966) . ʻO nā hiʻohiʻona i loko o kēlā puke e kū nei i ka'ōkuhi helu, akā e hoʻomalamaha ana lākou. No nā hiʻohiʻona o ka poʻe e loli ana i kā lākou halihali no kaʻikeʻana o kahi kiaʻi nui, e nānā iā Penney (2016) a me Brayne (2014) .

Hoʻopili pili pono ka hanana i ka mea a nā mea noiʻi i hea ai i nā koi (Orne 1962; Zizzo 2010) a me ka hopena Hawthorne (Adair 1984; Levitt and List 2011) .

• Kūʻokoʻa (mahele 2.3.4)

No kaʻike hou aku i ka huiʻana, eʻike iā Dunn (1946) a me Fellegi and Sunter (1969) ) a me Larsen and Winkler (2014) (nā mea hou). Ua hoʻokumuʻia nāʻano likeʻole i loko o kaʻepekemaʻepekema ma lalo o nā inoa e like me kaʻikepili data,ʻikeʻikepili, ka inoa like, ka mea kopeʻelua, a me kaʻike kope (Elmagarmid, Ipeirotis, and Verykios 2007) . Aia kekahi mau pilikino pilikino no ka hoʻopaʻaʻana i kahi pilinaʻole e ponoʻole i ka laweʻana i kaʻikeʻike kanaka (Schnell 2013) . Ua hoʻomohalaʻo Facebook i kahi kaʻina e hoʻohui i kā lākou mau moʻolelo i ka hana koho; ua hanaʻia kēia no ka loiloi i kahi hoʻokolohua e haʻi aku ai wau i ka Mokuna 4 (Bond et al. 2012; Jones et al. 2013) .

No nā mea hou aʻe no ke kūkuluʻana i ka pono, e nānā i ka mokuna 3 o Shadish, Cook, and Campbell (2001) .

• Loaʻa (kahi 2.3.5)

No nā mea hou aku ma kahi o ka'eneke huli hulina AOL, e nānā i Ohm (2010) . Ke hāʻawi aku nei au i nā'ōlelo aʻo e pili ana i ka piliʻana me nā hui a me nā aupuni ma ka Mokuna 4 i ka wā e wehewehe ai au i nā hoʻokolohua Ua hōʻike kekahi mau mea kākau e pili ana i ka noiʻi e pili ana i nāʻike hikiʻole keʻike, e nānā i Huberman (2012) a boyd and Crawford (2012) .

Hana maikai ala no kulanui noiʻi e loaʻa iā 'ike ke kōkua o ka mea e hana i kekahi poʻe e like me ka intern a me ke kipa kanaka noiʻi. A iâ lâkou e ho'ā aeaiiuo ke kōkua o, keia kaʻina e hoi kōkua i ke kanaka noiʻi aʻo hou e pili ana i ua hana i ka 'ikepili, ka mea nui no Ka Ikepili.

Ma keʻano o ka loaʻaʻana o kaʻike i nāʻike aupuni,ʻo Mervis (2014) e kūkākūkā ana pehea i loaʻa ai iā Raj Chetty a me nā hoa hana ka komoʻana i nāʻauhauʻauhau i hoʻohanaʻia ma kā lākou noiʻiʻana no ka holoʻana o ka nohona.

• ʻAʻohe lālā (sec:ʻaʻole hōʻike)

No nā mea hou aʻe ma ka moʻaukala o "representation" iʻikeʻia, e nānā iā Kruskal and Mosteller (1979a) , Kruskal and Mosteller (1979b) , Kruskal and Mosteller (1979c) , a me Kruskal and Mosteller (1980) .

ʻO koʻu mau hōʻuluʻulu o ka hana a Snow a me ka hana a Doll a me Hill he pōkole. No nā mea hou aʻe ma ka hana a Snow i ke cholera, eʻike i Freedman (1991) . No kaʻike hou aku i nā poʻe Doleka Pelekānia eʻike i ka Doll et al. (2004) a me Keating (2014) .

He nui nā mea noiʻi e kahaha i kaʻikeʻana inā ua hōʻiliʻiliʻo Doll a me Hill i kaʻikepili mai nā kauka kauka a me nā kauka i lalo o 35 mau makahiki,ʻaʻole lākou i hoʻohana i kēiaʻikepili i kā lākou nānā muaʻana. I ko lākou hoʻopaʻapaʻaʻana: "Mai ka ulu o ka maʻi kanesa o ka wahine i nā wāhine a me nā kāne ma lalo o ke 35, hikiʻole ke loaʻa nā kiʻi kūpono i kēia mau papa no nā makahiki e hiki mai ana. Ma kēia hōʻike mua, ua kau mākou i ko mākou nānā i nā kānaka 35 aʻoi aʻe. " Rothman, Gallacher, and Hatch (2013) , nona ka manaʻo hoʻokūnalua" No ke aha e hōʻoleʻia ai ka hōʻokoʻa, "e hoʻonui i ka hihia no ka waiwai o ka me ka noʻonoʻo e hana i kaʻikepiliʻole.

ʻO ka meaʻole kahi hōʻikeʻike he pilikia nui no nā mea noiʻi a me nā aupuni e makemake ana e kākau i nā'ōlelo e pili ana i ka heluna kanaka holoʻokoʻa. ʻAʻole kēia hopohopo nui i nā kamaliʻi, i ka manawa i hilinaʻi nuiʻia i ka poʻe hoʻohana. No kaʻike hou aʻe e pili ana i kaʻikeʻana o ka'ikepiliheluʻo Netherlands i ka hihia o ka hōʻikeʻole o kaʻikepili waiwai nui, e nānā iā Buelens et al. (2014) .

No nā hiʻohiʻona o nā mea noiʻi e hōʻike nei i ka manaʻopiʻi no nāʻano pilikinoʻole o nā kumuʻikepili nui, e nānā i boyd and Crawford (2012) , K. Lewis (2015b) , a me Hargittai (2015) .

No ka hoʻohālikelikeʻana o nā pahuhopu o ka huliʻana i nāʻike kaiaulu a me nā noiʻiʻana i kaʻikepili, e nānā iā Keiding and Louis (2016) .

No nā mea hou e pili ana i ka ho'āʻoʻana e hoʻohana i Twitter e hana i nā hōʻuluʻulu'ōlelo likeʻole e pili ana i ka poʻe koho,ʻoiai ka hihia mai nā koho balota o 2009, nānā iā Jungherr (2013) a me Jungherr (2015) . Ma hope o ka hana a Tumasjan et al. (2010) ua hoʻohana nā kānakaʻimi noiʻi a puni ka honua i nāʻano koho-e like me ka ho'āʻoʻana i ka manaʻo no ka hoʻokaʻawaleʻana i waena o nā manaʻo maikaʻi a me nā'ōleloʻino o nāʻaoʻao-no ka hoʻomaikaʻiʻana i kaʻike o nāʻike Twitter no ka wānanaʻana i nāʻano koho likeʻole (Gayo-Avello 2013; Jungherr 2015, chap. 7.) . Eia keʻano o ka hōʻuluʻuluʻana o Huberty (2015) i nā hopena o kēia mau ho'āʻo e wānana i nā koho balota:

"Ua pau nā hana iʻikeʻia e pili ana i nā pāpili kaiaulu i ka wā i hoʻokauʻia i nā koi o ka hoʻonohonoho kohoʻana i mua. ʻO kēia mau hemahema uaʻikeʻia he kumu ia o nā kumu waiwai o ka pāpili pāʻoihana, ma mua o ka pilikia o ka hana a me nā pilikia algorithmic. I ka pōkole,ʻaʻole pono nā pāpāho kaiapuni, aʻaʻole paha e hāʻawi, e hāʻawi i kahi hale noho, paleʻole, kiʻi pani o ka'āpana koho; aʻoluʻolu nā hiʻohiʻona o ka pāpāho eʻikeʻole i kaʻikepili no ka hoʻoponoponoʻana i kēia mau pilikia ma hope o kēia. "

Ma ka Mokuna 3, e wehewehe au i ka hōʻailona a me ka manaʻoʻana i loko o kaʻike nui. ʻOiai ināʻaʻole nā ​​kikowaena i hōʻikeʻole, ma lalo o kekahi mauʻano, hiki ke kaulikeʻia lākou e hana i nā kūpono maikaʻi.

• Ke wehewehe nei (mahele ' ¿sec: drifting? )

He mea paʻakikī ke nānā aku ma waho. Eia naʻe, ua holo ka wikiō MovieLens (e kūkākūkā houʻia ma ka Mokuna 4) no nā makahiki he 15 aʻoi aku kahi hui noiʻi kula. No laila, ua hiki iā lākou ke kākau a kaʻana like i kaʻike e pili ana i ke ala i ulu ai ka'ōnaehana ma mua o ka manawa a pehea e hopena ai kēia i kaʻikepili (Harper and Konstan 2015) .

Ua hoʻomau kekahi mau haumāna i ka neʻeʻana i Twitter: Liu, Kliman-Silver, and Mislove (2014) a me Tufekci (2014) .

Hoʻokahi mea e pili ana i kaʻaeʻana o nā kānaka he hana i ka hui o nā mea hoʻohana, a hiki i nā mea noiʻi ke aʻo i nā mea likeʻole ma kahi o ka manawa, e nānā i Diaz et al. (2016) .

• Ua hōʻanohoʻiaʻo Algorithmically (wāhanga ¿sec: algorithmically-confounded? )

Ua lohe mua wau i ka hua'ōlelo "algorithmically confounded" hoʻohanaʻia e Jon Kleinberg i loko o kahi kamaʻilioʻana, akā naʻe,ʻaʻole wau e hoʻomanaʻo i ka manawa a ma kahi paha i hāʻawiʻia ai ka kūkāʻana. ʻO ka manawa mua aʻu iʻike ai i ka manawa i paʻiʻia ma Anderson et al. (2015) , he loina maikaʻi loa ia e pili ana i ka hana a nā algorithms i hoʻohanaʻia e nā pae hōʻaia e hōʻemi ai i ka hikiʻana o nā mea noiʻi e hoʻohana i nāʻikepili mai kēia pūnaewele pūnaewele e aʻo i nā makemake o ka lehulehu. Ua hoʻopiʻiʻia kēia manaʻo e K. Lewis (2015a) ma muli o ka pane aku iā Anderson et al. (2014) .

Ma waho aʻe o Facebook, Twitter pū kekahi e paipai i nā poʻe no nā mea hoʻohana e hahai ma muli o ka manaʻo o ka hoʻopauʻekolu; ʻike iā Su, Sharma, and Goel (2016) . No laila,ʻo ka lōʻihi o ka paniʻekolu o Twitter ka hoʻohuiʻana o kekahi manaʻo kanaka e pili ana i ka pani hopeʻekolu a me kekahi mau hana algorithmic e hāpai i ka paniʻana oʻekolu.

No ka mea hou aku no ka hōʻikeʻike-ma ka manaʻo o kekahi mauʻike e pili ana i kaʻikepili pili kahi "kiʻiʻole kamepiula" (ʻo ia hoʻi, ua hoʻohālike lākou i ka honua ma muaʻole o ka weheweheʻana) - iā Mackenzie (2008) .

• 'Oihue (mahele 2.3.9)

Kālepa 'ōnaehana luna aupuni e hōʻiliʻili i nāʻikepili hoʻomaʻemaʻeʻike helu helu . De Waal, Puts, and Daas (2014) e wehewehe i nāʻano hoʻoponopono heluʻikepili i hoʻohālikelikeʻia no nāʻikepili noiʻi a e nānā i ka nui o nā mea e pili ana i nā kumuhanaʻikepili nui, a me Puts, Daas, and Waal (2015) hōʻike mai i kekahi o nā manaʻo like he hālāwai nui loa.

No ka nānāʻana o nā pūʻali pili kaiaulu, e nānā iā Ferrara et al. (2016) . No kekahi mau hiʻohiʻona o nā haʻawina i nānā i ka loaʻaʻana o ka huapuni ma Twitter, e nānā iā Clark et al. (2016) a me Chu et al. (2012) . ʻO ka hope, Subrahmanian et al. (2016) e wehewehe i nā hopena o ka DARPA Twitter Bot Challenge, kahi hana pilikino i hanaʻia e hoʻohālikelike i nā ala no kaʻikeʻana i nā bots ma Twitter.

• Nānā (mahele 2.3.10)

Ohm (2015) nānā mua i ka noiʻi no ka manaʻo o kaʻike pilikino a hāʻawi i kahi ho'āʻo nui. ʻO nā kumuʻehā āna i manaʻo ai,ʻo ia ka nui o ka pōʻino, ke kūlana o ka pōʻino, ka nohoʻana o kahi pilina pilikino, a inā paha eʻike ana ka hopena i nā manaʻo nui.

• Ka helu helu (paukū 2.4.1)

ʻO ke aʻoʻana o Farber e pili ana i nā taxis ma New York, ua hoʻokumuʻia ma kahi o mua i aʻoʻia e Camerer et al. (1997) nāna i hoʻohana i nāʻano kūpono kūponoʻekolu o ka pepa pepa pepa. Uaʻikeʻia ma mua o kaʻikeʻana o ka hoʻokeleʻana o nā mea hoʻokele i nā mea i loaʻa iā lākou.

Ma ka hana hope, uaʻimi hou ka Mō'ī a me nā hoa hana i ka hoʻowākino pūnaewele i Kina (King, Pan, and Roberts 2014, [@king_how_2016] ) . No kekahiʻano pili e pili ana i ke anaʻana i ka hoʻopaʻi pūnaewele i Kina, e nānā iā Bamman, O'Connor, and Smith (2012) . No nā mea hou aku e pili ana i nāʻano heluhelu likeʻole e like me ka mea i hoʻohanaʻia ma ka King, Pan, and Roberts (2013) e hoʻoholo i ka manaʻo o nā pahu he 11 miliona, e nānā iā Hopkins and King (2010) . No nā mea hou aʻe ma luna o ka hoʻonaʻauaoʻana, e nānā iā James et al. (2013) (ka mea liʻiliʻi) a me Hastie, Tibshirani, and Friedman (2009) (ʻoi aku ke akamai).

• Ka māmala'ōlelo a me ka hoʻolahaʻana i kēia manawa (paukū 2.4.2)

ʻO ka māmala'ōlelo he hapa nui ia o kaʻikepiliʻike'ikewai hana (Mayer-Schönberger and Cukier 2013; Provost and Fawcett 2013) . ʻO kekahiʻano o ka wanana e hana maʻalahiʻia e nā mea noiʻi kaiaulu ka wanana wanana kanaka; e nānā, e laʻa,ʻo Raftery et al. (2012) .

ʻO Google Flu Trendsʻaʻole ia he papahana mua e hoʻohana i nāʻikepili noiʻi i ka hoʻopau pinepineʻia o ka diabolis. ʻO ka meaʻoiaʻiʻo, uaʻike nā mea noiʻi maʻAmelika Hui PūʻIa (Polgreen et al. 2008; Ginsberg et al. 2009) a me Suède (Hulth, Rydevik, and Linde 2009) uaʻike kekahi mau hua'ōlelo maʻamau (e like me "flu") i ke olakino olakino o ka lehulehu. ʻike ma mua o ka hoʻokuʻuʻiaʻana. Ma hope iho, ua nui ka nui o nā papahana'ē aʻe i ho'āʻo e hoʻohana i nāʻikepili piliki moʻomeheu no kaʻikeʻana i nā maʻi; e nānā i Althouse et al. (2015) no ka loiloi.

Ma waho aʻe o ka hoʻohanaʻana i kaʻikepili kiʻi pilikino e wānana i nā hualoaʻa olakino, ua nui ka hana e hoʻohana ana i nāʻikepili Twitter e koho i nā hopena koho; no nā hōʻike iʻike iā Gayo-Avello (2011) , Gayo-Avello (2013) , Jungherr (2015) (mokuna 7), a me Huberty (2015) . ʻO ka hoʻolahaʻana i nā hōʻailona waiwai, e like me ka'ōʻaihana waiwai nui (GDP), he mea maʻalahi ia i nā central central, e nānā iā Bańbura et al. (2013) . Aia i ka papa 2.8 kahi mau hiʻohiʻona o nā haʻawina e hoʻohana nei i kekahiʻano pilikino kiʻi e wānana i kekahiʻano hanana i ka honua.

I ka hopena, ua haʻi akuʻo Jon Kleinberg a me nā hoahana (2015) i nā pilikia kūlana wanana i loko oʻelua mauʻanoʻano likeʻole, a ua mālama nā meaʻepekema i kaʻikeʻole i kekahi. E noʻonoʻo i kahi mea hoʻolaha kumukānāwai, e kāhea aku au iā Anna, kahi e kū ana i kahi'ōlohelohe a pono e hoʻoholo i ka hoʻolimalimaʻana i kahi mea hoʻolālā e hana i kahi hula no ka hoʻouluʻana i ka ua. ʻO kekahi mea hana hoʻolaha, e kapa wau iā iaʻo Bethty, pono e hoʻoholo i ka laweʻana i kahi hoʻopalapi e hana ai e pale i ka hoʻomaʻamaʻaʻana i ka hoʻiʻana i ka home. Hiki iā Anna a me Betty ke hoʻoholo i ka hoʻoholo maikaʻi aʻe inā maopopo lākou i ka'ōuli, akā pono lākou eʻike i nā mea likeʻole. Ponoʻo Anna e hoʻomaopopo i ka hulaʻana i ka ua. ʻO Betty, ma kekahiʻaoʻao,ʻaʻole pono e maopopo i kekahi mea e pili ana i ka causality; makemake waleʻo ia i kahi kūlana kūpono. Ke hoʻomau pinepine nei nā mea noiʻi kaiaulu i nā pilikia e like me ka mea a Anna i hoʻopiʻi ai -ʻo Kleinberg a me kona mau hoa e kapa aku i nā pilikia o ka politi-like "no ka hula-no ka mea he nīnau no ka hopena. Nā nīnau e like me ka mea i nānāʻia e Betty-e Kleinberg a me kona mau hoa e kapa aku i nā pilikia o ka politika-hiki i ka mea nui loa, akā, ua emi ka nānā ikiʻana mai nā poʻe noiʻi kaiaulu.

• Nā ho'āʻo kokoke e pili ana (mahele 2.4.3)

Ua loaʻa i kahi pukeʻo PS Politics Science kahi hui'ōlelo e pili ana i nāʻikepili nui, nā manaʻo o ka hopena, a me ka noʻeau kūlana, a Clark and Golder (2015) e hōʻuluʻulu i kēlā me kēia haʻawina. Ua loaʻa ka papahanaʻo Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America i kahi kūkākūkā e pili ana i ka hopena a me kaʻike nui, aʻo Shiffrin (2016) e hōʻuluʻulu nei i kēlā me kēia haʻawina. No kaʻikeʻana i ka mīkini e ho'āʻo nei eʻike aunoa i nā hoʻomehana kūlohelohe i loko o nā kumuʻikeʻike nui, e nānā iā Jensen et al. (2008) , Sharma, Hofman, and Watts (2015) , a me Sharma, Hofman, and Watts (2016) .

Ma keʻano o nā hoʻokolohua kūlohelohe, Dunning (2012) e hoʻolako i kahi ho'ākāka, ka lōʻihi o ka puke-lōʻihi me nā hōʻailona he nui. No kaʻike paʻakikī o nā hoʻokolohua kūlohelohe, e nānā iā Rosenzweig and Wolpin (2000) (waiwai kālā) aiʻoleʻo Sekhon and Titiunik (2012) (kaʻike politika). Deaton (2010) a he Heckman and Urzúa (2010) e'ōlelo nei e pili ana i nā hoʻokolohua kūlohelohe hiki ke alakaʻi i nā mea noiʻi e nānā i ka hoʻoholoʻana i nā hopena hopena kūponoʻole; Imbens (2010) helu nei i kēia mau manaʻo me ka manaʻo maikaʻi loa aku i ka waiwai o nā hoʻokolohua kūlohelohe.

Ke wehewehe nei i kahi e hiki ai i kahi mea noiʻi ke hele mai mai ka hoʻohālikelikeʻana i ka hopena o ka hoʻoholoʻana i ka hopena o ka lawelaweʻana, e wehewehe ana au i kahiʻano i kapaʻia heʻokoʻa mea kani . Imbens and Rubin (2015) , ma nā mokuna 23 a me 24, e hoʻolako i ka hoʻokomo a hoʻohana i ke kope o ka loiloi ma keʻano he kumu. ʻO ka hopena o kaʻoihana koa ma nā mea hoʻokupu i kekahi manawa i kapaʻiaʻo ka helu kaulike no ka hopena hopena (CAcE) aʻo kekahi manawa ka hopena o ka hoʻomaʻamaʻaʻana (LATE). Sovey and Green (2011) , Angrist and Krueger (2001) , a me Bollen (2012) i nā manaʻo no ka hoʻohanaʻana i nāʻano koʻikoʻi waiwai i kaʻike politika, nā waiwai waiwai, a me Sovey and Green (2011) , a Sovey and Green (2011) e hāʻawi mai i kahi helu helu "mea heluhelu" no ke loiloi i nāʻikepili e hoʻohana ana i nāʻanoʻokoʻa hana.

Ke huli neiʻo ia ma ka hōʻailona o ka 1970,ʻaʻole i loaʻa, i kaʻoiaʻiʻo, ua hoʻonohonoho ponoʻia; aia he mau liʻiliʻi liʻiliʻi mai ka'ōloheloheʻole (Fienberg 1971) . Berinsky and Chatfield (2015) he mea nuiʻole kēia liʻiliʻi liʻiliʻi a kūkā i ka nui o ka hoʻonohonoho kūpono.

Ma nāʻano o ka hoʻohālikelike, eʻike iā Stuart (2010) no kahi hoʻolālā maikaʻi, a me Sekhon (2009) no ka loiloi nui. No nā mea hou aʻe e pili ana i keʻano o ke kālaiʻana, e nānā iā Ho et al. (2007) . Loaʻa ka maʻalahi o kaʻikeʻana i kahi hoʻokahi kūlana piha e pono ai, a ke hoʻolaha nei kēia i nā hanana. ʻO ka mea mua, inā loaʻaʻole nā'ōkole pololei, pono ka poʻe noiʻi e koho i ka pehea e ana ai i ka mamao ma waena o nā'āpanaʻelua a inā he kokoke ka mamao i hāʻawiʻia. Hoʻopiliʻia kahi luana lua inā makemake nā kānaka noiʻi e hoʻohana i nā pāʻani likeʻole no kēlā me kēia hihia i loko o ka hui kulū, no ka mea e hiki ai kēia i kahi hoʻonohonoho pono. ʻO kēia mau hihiaʻelua, a me nā mea'ē aʻe, ua ho'ākāka pihaʻia ma ka Mokuna 18 Imbens and Rubin (2015) . E nānā hoʻi i ka Māhele II o ( ??? ) .

E nānā iā Dehejia and Wahba (1999) no keʻano kahi i hiki ai i nāʻano like ke hoʻohālike i nā manaʻo kūlike e like me ia mai kahi hoʻokolohua hoʻokolohua i hoʻonohonohoʻia. Akā, e nānā i nā Arceneaux, Gerber, and Green (2006) a me Arceneaux, Gerber, and Green (2010) no nā hiʻohiʻona i nā mea i hōʻoleʻole ai i nāʻano hoʻohālikelike i kahi hōʻailona hoʻokolohua.

Rosenbaum (2015) lāuaʻo Hernán and Robins (2016) hāʻawi aku i nā kumu aʻo'ē aʻe no kaʻikeʻana i nā hoʻohālike kūpono ma nā pūnaeweleʻike nui.